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Butterflies  and  Other  Insects 

Calimorpha;  2,  Prionus  Cervicornus;  3,  6,  Licsena;  4.  Oryctes  Hercules;  5,  Lucanus 
Cervus;  7,  Zeryntina;  8,  Lithosia;  9,  Arctia;  10,  Cynthia;  ii.Papilio  CEnora; 
12.  Oryctes  Nasicornis;  13,  Melolontha;  14,  Papilio  Machaon;  15,  Goliathus; 
16,  Ditiscus;  17,  Leptura;  18,  Geotrupes;  19,  20,  Vanessa;  21,  Urania 


THE   STORY  OF 
THE   UNIVERSE 

Told  by  Great  Scientists 
and    Popular    Authors 

COLLECTED    AND    EDITED 

By  ESTHER     SINGLETON 

Author  of  "Turrets,  Towers  and  Temples,"    "Wonders  of  Nature,* 
"The  World's  Great  Events,"   "Famous  Paintings,"  Trans 
of  Lavignac's  "Music    Dramas  of  Richard  Wagner" 


FULLY   ILLUSTRATED 


EARTH'S 
CREATURES 
FAUNA 


THE      CURRENT     LITERATURE 
PUBLISHING      CO., 

NEW      YORK 


COPTRIOHT  1905 

P.  P.  COLLIER  &  SON 


\c< 


ILLUSTRATIONS 

Butterflies   and   other   Insects Frontispiece 

Radiolaria Opposite  p.  1327 

Curious  Zoophytes 1375 

Fishes I423 

Shells 1495 

Types  of  Extinct  Fishes,  Shells,  and  Crus- 
tacea   "             1543 

• 

Birds "             1591 

Fairy  Flies 1639 

'American  Reptiles  ........  1687 


CONTENTS 


OMNIPRESENCE  OF  LIFE.    George  Henry  Lewes   ....  1285 
THE  ANIMAL  KINGDOM.     Thomas  H.  Huxley  .....   1296 

THE  FOUR  CLASSES.     Baron  Cuvier  .     . 1301 

DEEP  SEA  FAUNA.     Lord  Kelvin  . 1304 

"THE  MIMIC  FIRES  OF  OCEAN."     G.  Clarke  Nuttall  .      .      .   1320 
THE  JELLY-FISH  AND  OTHER  HYDROZOA.     P.  Martin  Duncan  1324 

FISHES.     Andrew  Wilson 1337 

WONDERS  OF  THE  SHORE.     Charles  Kingsley    .      .     ...   1357 

CRABS,  PRAWNS,  AND  LOBSTERS.     Philip  Henry  Gosse  .      .      .   1374 
REPTILES.     Peter   Mark    Roget      .........   1379 

THE  CLASSIFICATION  AND  ORIGIN  OF  INSECTS.    Lord  Avebury  1401 
INSECTS:   THEIR  WINGS,   STINGS,   EARS,   AND  EYES.     Philip 

Henry    Gosse      ...     .     .     .    • 1425 

FAIRY  FLIES.     Fred.   Enock    .      .     .     .     *     .     .     .     .     .   1449 

INSECT  TRANSFORMATIONS.    Andrew  Wilson 1458 

STRUGGLE  FOR  EXISTENCE.     Charles  Darwin     .....   1464 
NATURAL  SELECTION.     Charles  Darwin  .  1482 

MAMMALIA.     Baron  Cuvier „  1513 

ZOOLOGICAL  ZONES.     Sir  Richard  Owen  .......   1520 

GEOGRAPHICAL  DISTRIBUTION  OF  ANIMALS.    William  Hughes  1535 
CETACEA.     Peter  Mark  Roget 1561 

HUNTING  AND  FISHING  OF  ANIMALS.     Fre'de'ric  Houssay  .      .   1565 

(iii) 


THE 

STORY  OF  THE  UNIVERSE 


OMNIPRESENCE   OF   LIFE 
— GEORGE  HENRY  LEWES 

COME  with  me,  and  lovingly  study  Nature,  as 
she  breathes,  palpitates,  and  works  under 
myriad  forms  of  Life — forms  unseen,  unsuspected, 
or  unheeded  by  the  mass  of  ordinary  men.  Our 
course  may  be  through  park  and  meadow,  garden 
and  lane,  over  the  swelling  hills  and  spacious  heaths, 
beside  the  running  and  sequestered  streams  along  the 
tawny  coast,  out  on  the  dark  and  dangerous  reefs,  or 
under  dripping  caves  and  slippery  edges.  It  mat- 
ters little  where  we  go:  everywhere — in  the  air 
above,  the  earth  beneath,  and  waters  under  the  earth 
— we  are  surrounded  with  Life.  Avert  your  eyes 
a  while  from  our  human  world,  with  its  ceaseless 
anxieties,  its  noble  sorrow,  poignant,  yet  sublime,  of 
conscious  imperfection  aspiring  to  higher  states,  and 
contemplate  the  calmer  activities  of  that  other  world 
with  which  we  are  so  mysteriously  related.  I  hear 
you  exclaim, 

"The  proper  study  of  mankind  is  man;" 

nor  will   I   pretend,   as  some  enthusiastic  students 
seem  to  think,  that 

"The  proper  study  of  mankind  is  cells /" 

(1285) 


1286  THE  STORY  OF  THE  UNIVERSE 

but  agreeing  with  you,  that  man  is  the  noblest  study, 
I  would  suggest  that  under  the  noblest  there  are 
other  problems-  which  we  must  not  neglect.  Man 
himself  is  imperfectly  known,  because  the  laws  of 
universal  Life  are  imperfectly  known.  His  life 
forms  but  one  grand  illustration  of  Biology — the 
science  of  Life — as  he  forms  but  the  apex  of  the 
animal  world. 

Our  studies  here  will  be  of  Life,  and  chiefly  of 
those  minuter  or  obscurer  forms  which  seldom  at- 
tract attention.  In  the  air  we. breathe,  in  the  water 
we  drink,  in  the  earth  we  tread  on,  Life  is  every- 
where. Nature  lives:  every  pore  is  bursting  with 
Life;  every  death  is  only  a  new  birth,  every  grave 
a  cradle.  And  of  this  we  know  so  little,  think  so 
little!  Around  us,  above  us,  beneath  us,  that  great 
mystic  drama  of  creation  is  being  enacted,  and  we 
will  not  even  consent  to  be  spectators!  Unless 
animals  are  obviously  useful  or  obviously  hurtful 
to  us,  we  disregard  them.  Yet  they  are  not  alien, 
but  akin.  The  Life  that  stirs  within  us  stirs  within 
them.  We  are  all  "parts  of  one  transcendent  whole." 
The  scales  fall  from  our  eyes  when  we  think  of  this ; 
it  is  as  if  a  new  sense  had  been  vouchsafed  to  us,  and 
we  learn  to  look  at  Nature  with  a  more  intimate  and 
personal  love. 

Life  everywhere!  The  air  is  crowded  with  birds 
— beautiful,  tender,  intelligent  birds — to  whom  life 
is  a  song  and  a  thrilling  anxiety,  the  anxiety  of 
love.  The  air  is  swarming  with  insects — those  lit- 
tle animated  miracles.  The  waters  are  peopled 
with  innumerable  forms,  from  the  animalcule,  so 


OMNIPRESENCE  OF   LIFE  1287 

small  that  one  hundred  and  fifty  millions  of  them 
would  not  weigh  a  grain,  to  the  whale,  so  large 
that  it  seems  an  island  as  it  sleeps  upon  the  waves. 
The  bed  of  the  seas  is  alive  with  polypes,  crabs,  star- 
fishes, and  with  sand-numerous  shell-animalcules. 
The  rugged  face  of  rocks  is  scarred  by  the  silent 
boring  of  soft  creatures,  and  blackened  with  count- 
less mussels,  barnacles,  and  limpets. 

Life  everywhere!  on  the  earth,  in  the  earth,  crawl- 
ing, creeping,  burrowing,  boring,  leaping,  running. 
If  the  sequestered  coolness  of  the  wood  tempt  us  to 
saunter  into  its  checkered  shade,  we  are  saluted  by 
the  murmurous  din  of  insects,  the  twitter  of  birds, 
the  scrambling  of  squirrels,  the  startled  rush  of  un- 
seen beasts,  all  telling  how  populous  is  this  seeming 
solitude.  If  we  pause  before  a  tree,  or  shrub,  or 
plant,  our  cursory  and  half-abstracted  glance  detects 
a  colony  of  various  inhabitants.  We  pluck  a  flower, 
and  in  its  bosom  we  see  many  a  charming  insect  busy 
at  its  appointed  labor.  We  pick  up  a  fallen  leaf, 
and  if  nothing  is  visible  on  it,  there  is  probably  the 
trace  of  an  insect  larva  hidden  in  its  tissue,  and 
awaiting  there  development.  The  drop  of  dew  upon 
this  leaf  will  probably  contain  its  animals,  visible 
under  the  microscope.  This  same  microscope  re- 
veals that  the  blood-rain  suddenly  appearing  on 
bread,  and  awakening  superstitious  terrors,  is  nothing 
but  a  collection  of  minute  animals  (Monas  pro: 
digiosa)  ;  and  that  the  vast  tracts  of  snow  which  are 
reddened  in  a  single  night  owe  their  color  to  the 
marvelous  rapidity  in  reproduction  of  a  minute 
plant  (Protococcus  nivalis) .  The  very  mould  which 


1288  THE   STORY   OF  THE   UNIVERSE 

covers  our  cheese,  our  bread,  our  jam,  or  our  ink, 
and  disfigures  our  damp  walls,  is  nothing  but  a  col- 
lection of  plants.  The  many-colored  fire  which 
sparkles  on  the  surface  of  a  summer  sea  at  night,  as 
the  vessel  plows  her  way,  or  which  drips  from  the 
oars  in  lines  of  jeweled  light,  is  produced  by  mil- 
lions of  minute  animals. 

Nor  does  the  vast  procession  end  here.  Our  very 
mother-earth  is  formed  of  the  debris  of  life.  Plants 
and  animals  which  have  been  built  up  its  solid 
fabric.  We  dig  downward  thousands  of  feet  be- 
low the  surface,  and  discover  with  surprise  the 
skeletons  of  strange,  uncouth  animals,  which  roamed 
the  fens  and  struggled  through  the  woods  before 
man  was.  Our  surprise  is  heightened  when  we 
learn  that  the  very  quarry  itself  is  mainly  com- 
posed of  the  skeletons  of  microscopic  animals;  the 
flints  which  grate  beneath  our  carriage  wheels  are 
but  the  remains  of  countless  skeletons.  The  Apen- 
nines and  Cordilleras,  the  chalk  cliffs  so  dear  to 
homeward-nearing  eyes — these  are  the  pyramids  of 
bygone  generations  of  atomies.  Ages  ago  these 
tiny  architects  secreted  the  tiny  shells  which  were 
their  palaces;  from  the  ruins  of  these  palaces  we 
build  our  Parthenons,  our  St.  Peters,  and  our  Lou- 
vres. So  revolves  the  luminous  orb  of  Life!  Gen- 
erations follow  generations ;  and  the  Present  becomes 
the  matrix  of  the  Future,  as  the  Past  was  of  the 
Present — the  Life  of  one  epoch  forming  the  prelude 
to  a  higher  Life. 

When  we  have  thus  ranged  air,  earth,  and  water, 
finding  everywhere  a  prodigality  of  living  forms, 


OMNIPRESENCE   OF   LIFE  .1289 

visible  and  invisible,  it  might  seem  as  if  the  survey 
were  complete.  And  yet  it  is  not  so.  Life  cradles 
within  Life.  The  bodies  of  animals  are  little  worlds, 
having  their  own  animals  and  plants.  A  celebrated 
Frenchman  has  published  a  thick  octavo  volume 
devoted  to  the  classification  and  description  of  The 
Plants  which  Grow  on  Men  and  Animals;*  and 
many  Germans  have  described  the  immense  variety 
of  animals  which  grow  on  and  in  men  and  animals ; 
so  that  science  can  boast  of  a  parasitic  Flora  and 
Fauna.  In  the  fluids  and  tissues,  in  the  eye,  in  the 
liver,  in  the  stomach,  in  the  brain,  in  the  muscles, 
parasites  are  found,  and  these  parasites  have  often 
their  living  parasites  in  them! 

We  have  thus  taken  a  bird's-eye  view  of  the  field 
in  which  we  may  labor.  It  is  truly  inexhaustible. 
We  may  begin  where  we  please,  we  shall  never 
come  to  an  end;  our  curiosity  will  never  slacken. 

"And  whosoe'er  in  youth 
Has  through  ambition  of  his  soul  given  way 
To  such  desires,  and  grasp'd  at  such  delights, 
Shall  feel  congenial  stirrings  late  and  long." 

As  a  beginning,  get  a  microscope.  If  you  can  not 
borrow,  boldly  buy  one.  Few  purchases  will  yield 
you  so  much  pleasure;  and,  while  you  are  about  it, 
do,  if  possible,  get  a  good  one.  Spend  as  little 
money  as  you  can  on  accessory  apparatus  and  ex- 
pensive fittings,  but  get  a  good  stand  and  good 
glasses.  Having  got  your  instrument,  bear  in  mind 
these  two  important  trifles — work  by  daylight,  sel- 

*  Charles  Robin:  "Histoire  Naturelle  des  Vegetaux  Para- 
sites qui  croissent  sur  1'Homme  et  sur  les  Animaux  Vivants." 
1853- 


1290  THE   STORY   OF  THE   UNIVERSE 

dom  or  never  by  lamplight;  and  keep  the  unoccu- 
pied eye  open.  With  these  precautions  you  may 
work  daily  for  hours  without  serious  fatigue  to  the 
eye. 

Now  where  shall  we  begin?  Anywhere  will  do. 
This  dead  frog,  for  example,  that  has  already  been 
made  the  subject  of  experiments,  and  is  now  await- 
ing the  removal  of  its  spinal  cord,  will  serve  us  as 
a  text  from  which  profitable  lessons  may  be  drawn. 
We  snip  out  a  portion  of  its  digestive  tube,  which, 
from  its  emptiness,  seems  to  promise  little;  but  a 
drop  of  the  liquid  we  find  in  it  is  placed  on  a  glass 
slide,  covered  with  a  small  piece  of  very  thin  glass, 
and  brought  under  the  microscope.  Now  look. 
There  are  several  things  which  might  occupy  your 
attention,  but  disregard  them  now  to  watch  that 
animalcule  which  you  observe  swimming  about. 
What  is  it?  It  is  one  of  the  largest  of  the  Infusoria, 
and  is  named  Opalina.  When  I  call  this  an  In- 
fusorium I  am  using  the  language  of  text-books; 
but  there  seems  to  be  a  growing  belief  among  zo- 
ologists that  the  Opalina  is  not  an  Infusorium,  but 
the  infantile  condition  of  some  worm  (Distoma?). 
However,  it  will  not  grow  into  a  mature  worm  as 
long  as  it  inhabits  the  frog;  it  waits  till  some  pike 
or  bird  has  devoured  the  frog,  and  then,  in  the 
stomach  of  its  new  captor,  it  will  develop  into  its 
mature  form — then,  and  not  till  then.  This  sur- 
prises you.  And  well  it  may;  but  thereby  hangs  a 
tale,  which  to  unfold — for  the  present,  however,  it 
must  be  postponed,  because  the  Opalina  itself  needs 
all  our  notice. 


OMNIPRESENCE   OF   LIFE  1291 

Observe  how  transparent  it  is,  and  with  what 
easy,  undulating  grace  it  swims  about;  yet  this 
swimmer  has  no  arms,  no  legs,  no  tail,  no  backbone 
to  serve  as  a  fulcrum  to  moving  muscles — nay,  it  has 
no  muscles  to  move  with.  'Tis  a  creature  of  the 
most  absolute  abnegations — sans  eyes,  sans  teeth, 
sans  everything;  no,  not  sans  everything,  for,  as 
we  look  attentively,  we  see  certain  currents  pro- 
duced in  the  liquid,  and,  on  applying  a  higher  mag- 
nifying power,  we  detect  how  these  currents  are 
produced.  All  over  the  surface  of  the  Opalina  there 
are  delicate  hairs  in  incessant  vibration;  these  are 
the  cilia*  They  lash  the  water,  and  the  animal  is 
propelled  by  their  strokes,  as  a  galley  by  its  hundred 
oars.  This  is  your  first  sight  of  that  ciliary  action 
of  which  you  have  so  often  read,  and  which  you  will 
henceforth  find  performing  some  important  service 
in  almost  every  animal  you  examine.  Sometimes  the 
cilia  act  as  instruments  of  locomotion;  sometimes  as 
instruments  of  respiration,  by  continually  renewing 
the  current  of  water;  sometimes  as  the  means  of 
drawing  in  food,  for  which  purpose  they  surround 
the  mouth,  and  by  their  incessant  action  produce  a 
small  whirlpool  into  which  the  food  is  sucked.  An 
example  of  this  is  seen  in  the  Vorticella. 

Having  studied  the  action  of  these  cilia  in  micro- 
scopic animals,  you  will  be  prepared  to  understand 
their  ofHce  in  your  own  organism. 

It  is  an  interesting  fact,  that  while  the  direction 
in  which  the  cilia  propel  fluids  and  particles  is  gen- 

*  From  cilium,  a  hair. 


1292  THE  STORY  OF  THE   UNIVERSE 

erally  toward  the  interior  of  the  organism,  it  is 
sometimes  reversed,  and,  instead  of  beating  the  par- 
ticles inward,  the  cilia  energetically  beat  them  back 
if  they  attempt  to  enter.  Fatal  results  would  ensue 
if  this  were  not  so.  Our  air-passages  would  no 
longer  protect  the  lungs  from  particles  of  sand,  coal- 
dust,  and  filings  flying  about  the  atmosphere;  on 
the  contrary,  the  lashing  hairs  which  cover  the  sur- 
face of  these  passages  would  catch  up  every  particle 
and  drive  it  onward  into  the  lungs.  Fortunately 
for  us,  the  direction  of  the  cilia  is  reversed,  and  they 
act  as  vigilant  janitors,  driving  back  all  vagrant  par- 
ticles with  a  stern  "No  admittance,  even  on  business!" 
In  vain  does  the  whirlwind  dash  a  column  of  dust  in 
our  faces — in  vain  does  the  air,  darkened  with  coal- 
dust,  impetuously  rush  up  the  nostrils;  the  air  is 
allowed  to  pass  on,  but  the  dust  is  inexorably  driven 
back. 

The  swimming  apparatus  of  the  Opalina  has  led 
us  far  away  from  the  little  animal  who  has  been 
feeding  while  we  have  been  lecturing.  At  the  men- 
tion of  feeding  you  naturally  look  for  the  food  that 
is  eaten,  the  mouth  and  stomach  that  eat.  But  I 
hinted  just  now  that  this  ethereal  creature  dispenses 
with  a  stomach,  as  too  gross  for  its  nature,  and,  of 
course,  by  a  similar  refinement,  dispenses  with  a 
mouth.  Indeed,  it  has  no  organs  whatever  except 
the  cilia  just  spoken  of. 

And  this  leads  us  to  consider  what  biologists 
mean  by  an  organ:  it  is  a  particular  portion  of  the 
body  set  apart  for  the  performance  of  some  particu- 
lar function.  The  whole  process  of  development  is 


OMNIPRESENCE   OF   LIFE  1293 

this  setting  apart  for  special  purposes.  The  start- 
ing-point of  Life  is  a  single  cell — that  is  to  say,  a 
microscopic  sac,  filled  with  liquid  and  granules,  and 
having  within  it  a  nucleus,  or  smaller  sac.  Paley 
has  somewhere  remarked  that  in  the  early  stages 
there  is  no  difference  discernible  between  a  frog  and 
a  philosopher.  It  is  very  true — truer  than  he  con- 
ceived. In  the  earliest  stage  of  all,  both  the  Ba- 
trachian  and  the  Philosopher  are  nothing  but  single 
cells,  although  the  one  cell  will  develop  into  an 
Aristotle  or  a  Newton,  and  the  other  will  get  no 
higher  than  the  cold,  damp,  croaking  animal  which 
boys  will  pelt,  anatomists  dissect,  and  Frenchmen 
eat.  From  the  starting-point  of  a  single  cell  this 
is  the  course  taken :  the  cell  divides  itself  into  two, 
the  two  become  four,  the  four  eight,  and  so  on,  till 
a  mass  of  cells  is  formed  not  unlike  the  shape  of 
a  mulberry.  This  mulberry-mass  then  becomes  a 
sac,  with  double  envelopes  or  walls;  the  inner  wall, 
turned  toward  the  yelk,  or  food,  becomes  the  assimi- 
lating surface  for  the  whole;  the  outer  wall,  turned 
toward  the  surrounding  medium,  becomes  the  sur- 
face which  is  to  bring  frog  and  philosopher  into 
contact  and  relation  with  the  external  world — the 
Non-Ego,  as  the  philosopher  in  after  life  will  call  it. 
Here  we  perceive  the  first  grand  "setting  apart,"  or 
differentiation,  has  taken  place;  the  embryo  having 
an  assimilating  surface,  which  has  little  to  do  with 
the  external  world,  and  a  sensitive,  contractile  sur- 
face, which  has  little  to  do  with  the  preparation  and 
transport  of  food.  The  embryo  is  no  longer  a  mass 
of  similar  cells ;  it  is  already  become  dissimilar,  dif- 


1294  THE   STORY   OF  THE   UNIVERSE 

ferent,  as  respects  its  inner  and  outer  envelope. 
But  these  envelopes  are  at  present  uniform;  one 
part  of  each  is  exactly  like  the  rest  Let  us,  there- 
fore, follow  the  history  of  Development,  and  we 
shall  find  that  the  inner  wall  gradually  becomes  un- 
like itself  in  various  parts,  and  that  certain  organs, 
constituting  a  very  complex  apparatus  of  Digestion, 
Secretion,  and  Excretion,  are  all  one  by  one  wrought 
out  of  it  by  a  series  of  metamorphoses  or  differentia- 
tions. The  inner  wall  thus  passes  from  a  simple 
assimilating  surface  to  a  complex  apparatus  serving 
the  functions  of  vegetative  life. 

Now  glance  at  the  outer  wall:  from  it  also  vari- 
ous organs  have  gradually  been  wrought;  it  has  de- 
veloped into  muscles,  nerves,  bones,  organs  of  sense, 
and  brain — all  these  from  a  simple  homogeneous 
membrane! 

With  this  bird's-eye  view  of  the  course  of  develop- 
ment you  will  be  able  to  appreciate  the  grand  law 
first  clearly  enunciated  by  Goethe  and  Von  Baer  as 
the  law  of  animal  life,  namely,  that  development 
is  always  from  the  general  to  the  special,  from  the 
simple  to  the  complex,  from  the  homogeneous  to  the 
heterogeneous,  and  this  by  a  gradual  series  of  differ- 
entiations. 

Here  is  our  Opalina,  for  example,  without  mouth, 
or  stomach,  or  any  other  organ.  It  is  an  assimilating 
surface  in  every  part;  in  every  part  a  breathing, 
sensitive  surface.  Living  on  liquid  food,  it  does  not 
need  a  mouth  to  seize  or  a  stomach  to  digest  such 
food.  The  liquid,  or  gas,  passes  through  the  Opa- 
lina's  delicate  skin  by  a  process  which  is  called  en- 


OMNIPRESENCE   OF   LIFE  1295 

d osmosis;  it  there  serves  as  food;  and  the  refuse 
passes  out  again  by  a  similar  process,  called  exosmo- 
sis.  This  is  the  way  in  which  many  animals  and  all 
plants  are  nourished.  The  cell  at  the  end  of  a  root- 
let, which  the  plant  sends  burrowing  through  the 
earth,  has  no  mouth  to  seize,  no  open  pores  to  admit 
the  liquid  that  it  needs;  nevertheless,  the  liquid 
passes  into  the  cell  through  its  delicate  cell-wall,  and 
passes  from  this  cell  to  other  cells  upward  from 
the  rootlet  to  the  bud.  It  is  in  this  way,  also,  that 
the  Opalina  feeds:  it  is  all-mouth,  no-mouth;  all- 
stomach,  no-stomach.  Every  part  of  its  body  per- 
forms the  functions  which  in  more  complex  animals 
are  performed  by  organs  specially  set  apart.  It  feeds 
without  mouth,  breathes  without  lungs,  and  moves 
without  muscles.  The  Opalina,  as  I  have  said,  is 
a  parasite.  It  may  be  found  in  various  animals,  and 
almost  always  in  the  frog. 

Nature  is  economic  as  well  as  prodigal  of  space. 
She  fills  the  illimitable  heavens  with  planetary  and 
starry  grandeurs,  and  the  tiny  atoms  moving  over 
the  crust  of  earth  she  makes  the  homes  of  the  in- 
finitely little.  Far  as  the  mightiest  telescope  can 
reach,  it  detects  worlds  in  clusters,  like  pebbles  on 
the  shore  of  infinitude;  deep  as  the  microscope  can 
penetrate,  it  detects  life  within  life,  generation  within 
generation,  as  if  the  very  universe  itself  were  not  vast 
enough  for  the  energies  of  life! 


1296  THE   STORY   OF   THE   UNIVERSE 


THE   ANIMAL   KINGDOM 
— THOMAS  H.  HUXLEY 

AS  soon  as  the  labors  of  anatomists  had  extended 
over  a  sufficiently  great  variety  of  animals,  it 
was  found  that  they  could  be  grouped  into  separate 
assemblages,  the  members  of  each  of  which,  while 
varying  more  or  less  in  minor  respects,  had  certain 
structural  features  in  common,  and  these  common 
morphological  characters  became  the  definition  of 
the  group  thus  formed.  The  smallest  group  thus 
constituted  is  a  Morphological  Species.  A  certain 
number  of  species  having  characters  in  common,  by 
which  they  resemble  one  another  and  differ  from  all 
other  species,  constitutes  a  Genus;  a  group  of  genera, 
similarly  associated,  constitutes  a  Family;  a  group 
of  families,  an  Order;  a  group  of  orders,  a  Class;  a 
group  of  classes,  a  Sub-kingdom;  while  the  latter, 
agreeing  with  one  another  only  in  the  characters  in 
which  all  animals  agree,  and  in  which  they  differ 
from  all  plants,  make  up  the  Animal  Kingdom. 

Linnaeus,  living  at  a  time  when  neither  compara- 
tive anatomy  nor  embryology  can  be  said  to  have  ex- 
isted, based  his  classification  of  animals  upon  such 
broad  resemblances  of  adult  structure  and  habit  as 
his  remarkable  sagacity  and  wide  knowledge  en- 
abled him  to  detect.  Cuvier  and  his  school  devoted 
themselves  to  the  working  out  of  adult  structure, 
and  the  Leqons  d'Anatomie  Comparee  and  the  Regne 
Animal  are  wonderful  embodiments  of  the  results  of 
such  investigations.  But  the  Cuvierian  system  ig- 


THE  ANIMAL   KINGDOM  1297 

nores  development;  and  it  was  reserved  for  Von 
Baer  to  show  the  importance  of  developmental 
studies,  and  to  inaugurate  the  marvelous  series  of 
researches  which,  in  the  course  of  the  last  fifty  years, 
have  made  us  acquainted  with  the  manner  of  de- 
velopment of  every  important  group  of  animals. 
The  splendid  researches  of  Cuvier  gave  birth  to 
scientific  palaeontology,  and  demonstrated  that,  in 
some  cases,  at  any  rate,  extinct  forms  of  life  present 
characters  intermediate  between  those  of  groups 
which  are  at  present  widely  different.  The  investi- 
gations of  Agassiz  upon  fossil  fishes  tended  in  the 
same  direction,  and  further  showed  that,  in  some 
cases,  the  older  forms  preserve,  as  permanent  fea- 
tures, structural  characters  which  are  embryonic  and 
transitory  in  their  living  congeners.  Moreover, 
Darwin,  Owen,  and  Wallace  proved  that,  in  any 
great  area  of  geographical  distribution,  the  later 
tertiary  extinct  forms  are  clearly  related  to  those 
which  now  exist  in  the  area.  As  Taxonomic  investi- 
gations increased  in  accuracy  and  in  extent,  the  care- 
ful examination  of  large  suites  of  specimens  revealed 
an  unexpected  amount  of  variability  in  species ;  and 
Darwin's  investigation  of  the  phenomena  presented 
by  animals  under  domestication  proved  that  forms, 
morphologically  as  distinct  as  admitted  natural 
genera,  could  be  produced  by  selective  breeding 
from  a  common  stock. 

The  only  genus  of  animals  of  which  we  possess  a 
satisfactory,  though  still  not  quite  complete,  ances- 
tral history,  is  the  genus  Equus,  the  development  of 
which  in  the  course  of  the  Tertiary  epoch  from  an 


1298  THE   STORY   OF  THE   UNIVERSE 

Anchitherioid  ancestor,  through  the  form  of  Hip- 
parion,  appears  to  admit  of  no  doubt.  And  all  the 
facts  of  geology  and  palaeontology  not  only  tend  to 
show  that  the  knowledge  of  ancestral  development 
is  likely  long  to  remain  fragmentary,  but  lead  us  to 
doubt  whether  even  such  fragments  as  may  be  vouch- 
safed to  us  by  the  extension  of  geological  inquiry  will 
ever  be  sufficiently  old,  in  relation  to  the  whole 
duration  of  life  on  the  earth,  to  give  us  positive  evi- 
dence of  the  nature  of  the  earliest  forms  of  animals. 

In  the  case  of  an  existing  animal,  it  is  possible  to 
determine  its  adult  structure  and  its  development, 
and  therefore  to  assign  its  place  relatively  to  other 
animals,  the  structure  and  development  of  which  are 
also  known ;  and,  in  the  case  of  an  extinct  animal,  it 
is  possible  to  ascertain  certain  facts  of  its  structure, 
and  sometimes  certain  facts  of  its  development,  which 
will  justify  a  more  or  less  positive  assignment  of 
its  place  relatively  to  existing  animals.  So  far,  Tax- 
onomy is  objective,  capable  of  proof  and  disproof, 
and  it  should  leave  speculation  aside,  until  specula- 
tion has  converted  itself  into  demonstration. 

In  the  present  rapidly  shifting  condition  of  our 
knowledge  of  the  facts  of  animal  structure  and  de- 
velopment, however,  it  is  no  easy  matter  to  group 
these  facts  into  general  propositions  which  shall  ex- 
press neither  more  nor  less  than  is  contained  in  the 
facts;  and  no  one  can  be  more  conscious  of  the  mani- 
fold imperfections  of  the  following  attempt  at  such 
a  classification  than  the  author  of  it. 

In  certain  of  the  lower  animals,  the  substance  of 
the  body  is  not  differentiated  into  histogenetic  ele- 


THE   ANIMAL   KINGDOM  1299 

merits;  that  is,  into  cells*  which,  by  their  metamor- 
phoses, give  rise  to  tissues.  In  all  other  animals,  on 
the  other  hand,  the  protoplasmic  mass,  which  con- 
stitutes the  primitive  body,  is  converted  into  a  mul- 
titude of  cells,  which  become  metamorphosed  into 
the  tissues  of  the  body. 

For  the  first  of  these  divisions  the  old  name  of 
Protozoa  may  be  retained;  for  the  second,  the  title 
of  Metazoa,  recently  proposed  by  Haeckel,  may  be 
conveniently  employed. 

The  subjoined  synopsis  indicates  the  general  rela- 
tions of  the  different  groups  of  the  animal  kingdom. 

Those  who  are  familiar  with  the  existing  condi- 
tion of  our  knowledge  of  animal  morphology  will  be 
aware  that  any  such  scheme  must  needs,  at  present, 
be  tentative  and  subject  to  extensive  revision,  in  cor- 
respondence with  the  advance  of  knowledge.  Nor 
will  they  regard  it  as  any  objection  to  the  scheme  of 
classification  proposed,  that  the  divisions  sketched 
out  may  be  incapable  of  sharp  definition — the  con- 
stant tendency  of  modern  investigations  being  to 
break  through  all  boundaries  of  groups,  and  to  fill 
up  the  gaps  between  them  by  the  discovery  of  tran- 
sitional forms.  In  the  place  of  assemblages  of  dis- 
tinctly definable  groups,  which  it  has  hitherto  been 
the  object  of  the  taxonomist  to  define  and  co-ordi- 
nate in  precise  logical  categories,  we  are  gradually 
learning  to  substitute  series,  in  which  all  the  modi- 
fications by  which  a  fundamental  form  passes  from 
lower  to  higher  degrees  of  organic  complication  are 
summed  up. 

*  The  term   "cell"   is   used  here  in  its  broadest  sense. 


1300 


THE   STORY  OF  THE   UNIVERSE 


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THE   FOUR  CLASSES  1301 


THE   FOUR  CLASSES 

— BARON  CUVIER 

IF  we  consider  only  the  organization  and  nature 
of  animals,  without  regard  to  their  size,  utility, 
the  greater  or  less  knowledge  we  have  of  them,  and 
other  accessory  circumstances,  we  shall  find  there 
are  four  principal  forms,  four  general  plans,  if  it 
may  be  so  expressed,  on  which  all  animals  seem  to 
have  been  modeled,  and  whose  ulterior  divisions, 
whatever  be  the  titles  with  which  naturalists  have 
decorated  them,  are  merely  slight  modifications, 
founded  on  the  development  or  addition  of  certain 
parts,  which  produce  no  essential  change  in  the 
plan  itself. 

In  the  first  of  these  forms,  which  is  that  of  man 
and  of  the  animals  most  nearly  resembling  him,  the 
brain  and  principal  trunk  of  the  nervous  system  are 
inclosed  in  a  bony  envelope,  formed  by  the  cranium 
and  vertebrae;  to  the  sides  of  this  intermedial  column 
are  attached  the  ribs  and  bones  of  the  limbs,  which 
form  the  framework  of  the  body;  the  muscles  gen- 
erally cover  the  bones,  whose  motions  they  occasion, 
while  the  viscera  are  contained  within  the  head  and 
trunk.  Animals  of  this  form  we  shall  denominate 
Animalia  Vertebrata.  They  have,  all,  red  blood,  a 
muscular  heart,  a  mouth  furnished  with  two  jaws 
situated  either  above  or  before  each  other,  distinct 
organs  of  sight,  hearing,  smell,  and  taste  placed  in 
the  cavities  of  the  face,  never  more  than  four  limbs, 
the  sexes  always  separated,  and  a  very  similar  dis- 


1302  THE   STORY   OF  THE   UNIVERSE 

tribution  of  the  medullary  masses  and  the  principal 
branches  of  the  nervous  system. 

By  a  closer  examination  of  each  of  the  parts  of 
this  great  series  of  animals,  we  always  discover  some 
analogy,  even  in  species  the  most  remote  from  each 
other;  and  may  trace  the  gradations  of  one  same 
plan  from  man  to  the  last  of  the  fishes. 

In  the  second  form  there  is  no  skeleton;  the  mus- 
cles are  merely  attached  to  the  skin,  which  constitutes 
a  soft  contractile  envelope,  in  which,  in  many  spe- 
cies, are  formed  stony  plates,  called  shells,  whose 
position  and  production  are  analogous  to  those  of 
the  mucous  body.  The  nervous  system  is  contained 
within  this  general  envelope  along  with  the  viscera, 
and  is  composed  of  several  scattered  masses  con- 
nected by  nervous  filaments;  the  chief  of  these 
masses  is  placed  on  the  aesophagus  and  is  called  the 
brain.  Of  the  four  senses,  the  organs  of  two  only 
are  observable,  those  of  taste  and  sight,  the  latter  of 
which  are  even  frequently  wanting.  One  single 
family  alone  presents  organs  of  hearing.  There  is 
always,  however,  a  complete  system  of  circulation, 
and  particular  organs  for  respiration.  Those  of  di- 
gestion and  secretion  are  nearly  as  complex  as  in  the 
vertebrata.  We  will  distinguish  the  animals  of  this 
second  form  by  the  appellation  of  Animalia  Mol- 
lusca. 

Although,  as  respects  the  external  configuration  of 
the  parts,  the  general  plan  of  their  organization  is 
not  as  uniform  as  that  of  the  vertebrata,  there  is  al- 
ways an  equal  degree  of  resemblance  between  them 
in  the  structure  and  the  functions. 


THE   FOUR   CLASSES  1303 

The  third  form  is  that  remarked  in  worms,  insects, 
etc.  Their  nervous  system  consists  of  two  long  cords, 
running  longitudinally  through  the  abdomen,  with 
which  they  communicate  by  filaments  that  encircle 
the  aesophagus  like  a  necklace.  The  covering  or 
envelope  of  the  body  is  divided  by  transverse  folds 
into  a  certain  number  of  rings  whose  teguments  are 
sometimes  soft,  and  sometimes  hard;  the  muscles, 
however,  being  always  situated  internally.  Articu- 
lated limbs  are  frequently  attached  to  the  trunk;  but 
very  often  there  are  none.  We  will  call  these  ani- 
mals Animalia  Articulata,  or  articulated  animals, 
in  which  is  observed  the  transition  from  the  circula- 
tion in  closed  vessels  to  nutrition  by  imbibition,  and 
the  corresponding  one  of  respiration  in  circum- 
scribed organs,  to  that  effected  by  tracheae  or  air- 
vessels  distributed  throughout  the  body.  In  them 
the  organs  of  taste  and  sight  are  the  most  distinct; 
one  single  family  alone  presenting  that  of  hearing. 
Their  jaws,  when  they  have  any,  are  always  lateral. 

The  fourth  form,  which  embraces  all  those  ani- 
mals known  by  the  name  of  zoophytes,  may  also  be 
properly  denominated  Animalia  Radiata,  or  radiated 
animals.  We  have  seen  that  the  organs  of  sense  and 
motion  in  all  the  preceding  ones  are  symmetrically 
arranged  on  the  two  sides  of  an  axis.  There  is  a 
posterior  and  anterior  dissimilar  face.  In  this  last 
division  they  are  disposed  by  rays  round  a  centre;  and 
this  is  the  case  even  when  they  consist  of  but  two 
series,  for  then  the  two  faces  are  similar.  They  ap- 
proximate to  the  homogeneity  of  plants,  having  no 
very  distinct  nervous  system  or  particular  organs  of 

B  VOL.  IV. 


1304  THE   STORY   OF  THE    UNIVERSE 

sense ;  in  some  of  them  it  is  even  difficult  to  discover 
a  vestige  of  circulation;  their  respiratory  organs  are 
almost  universally  seated  on  the  surface  of  the  body, 
the  intestine  in  the  greater  number  is  a  mere  sac 
without  issue,  and  the  lowest  of  the  series  are  nothing 
but  a  sort  of  homogeneous  pulp,  endowed  with 
motion  and  sensibility. 

DEEP    SEA   FAUNA 

— LORD  KELVIN 

NEARLY  all  the  animals  at  extreme  depths — 
practically  all  the  animals,  for  the  small  num- 
ber of  higher  forms  feed  upon  these — belong  to  one 
sub-kingdom,  the  Protozoa;  whose  distinctive  char- 
acter is  that  they  have  no  special  organs  of  nutrition, 
but  absorb  nourishment  through  the  whole  surface  of 
their  jelly-like  bodies.  Most  of  these  animals  secrete 
exquisitely  formed  skeletons,  some  of  silica,  some  of 
carbonate  of  lime.  There  is  no  doubt  that  they  ex- 
tract both  these  substances  from  the  sea-water;  and 
it  seems  more  than  probable  that  the  organic  matter 
which  forms  their  soft  parts  is  derived  from  the  same 
source.  It  is  thus  quite  intelligible  that  a  world  of 
animals  may  live  in  these  dark  abysses,  but  it  is  a 
necessary  condition  that  they  must  chiefly  belong  to 
a  class  capable  of  being  supported  by  absorption 
through  the  surface  of  their  bodies  of  matter  in  solu- 
tion, developing  but  little  heat,  and  incurring  a  very 
small  amount  of  waste  by  any  manifestation  of  vital 
activity.  According  to  this  view  it  seems  probable 
that  at  all  periods  of  the  earth's  history,  some  form 


DEEP   SEA  FAUNA  1305 

of  the  Protozoa — rhizopods,  sponges,  or  both — prer 
dominated  greatly  over  all  other  forms  of  animal 
life  in  the  depths  of  the  warmer  regions  of  the  sea. 
The  rhizopods,  like  the  corals  of  a  shallower  zone, 
form  huge  accumulations  of  carbonate  of  lime,  and  it 
is  probably  to  their  agency  that  we  must  refer  most 
of  those  great  bands  of  limestone  which  have  resisted 
time  and  change,  and  come  in  here  and  there  with 
their  rich  imbedded  lettering  to  mark  like  milestones 
the  progress  of  the  passing  ages. 

We  find  the  first  and  simplest  of  the  invertebrate 
sub-kingdoms,  the  Protozoa,  represented  by  three 
of  its  classes — the  monera,  the  rhizopoda,  and  the 
sponges.  The  monera  have  been  defined  as  a  distinct 
class  by  Professor  Ernst  Haeckel,  of  a  vast  assem- 
blage of  almost  formless  beings  apparently  abso- 
lutely devoid  of  internal  structure,  and  consisting 
simply  of  living  and  moving  expansions  of  jelly-like 
protoplasm.  The  monera  pass  into  the  rhizopoda, 
which  give  a  slight  indication  of  advance  in  the  defi- 
nite form  of  the  graceful,  calcareous,  shell-like 
structures  which  most  of  them  secrete,  and  the  two 
groups  may  be  taken*  together. 

The  dredging  at  2,435  fathoms  at  the  mouth  of 
the  Bay  of  Biscay  gave  a  very  fair  idea  of  the  con- 
dition of  the  bottom  of  the  sea  over  an  enormous 
area,  as  we  know  from  many  observations  which 
have  now  been  made  with  the  various  sounding 
instruments  contrived  to  bring  up  a  sample  of  the 
bottom.  Under  the  microscope  the  surface-layer 
was  found  to  consist  chiefly  of  entire  shells  of 
Globigerina  bulloides,  large  and  small,  and  frag- 


1306  THE   STORY   OF   THE    UNIVERSE 

ments  of  such  shells  mixed  with  a  quantity  of  amor- 
phous calcareous  matter  in  fine  particles,  a  little  fine 
sand,  and  many  spicules,  portions  of  spicules,  and 
shells  of  Radiolaria,  a  few  spicules  of  sponges,  and 
a  few  frustules  of  diatoms. 

In  this  dredging,  as  in  most  others  in  the  bed 
of  the  Atlantic,  there  was  evidence  of  a  considerable 
quantity  of  soft  gelatinous  organic  matter,  enough 
to  give  a  slight  viscosity  to  the  mud  of  the  surface- 
layer.  This  gelatinous  matter  is  capable  of  a  cer- 
tain amount  of  movement,  and  there  can  be  no  doubt 
that  it  manifests  the  phenomena  of  a  very  simple 
form  of  life. 

To  this  organism,  if  a  being  can  be  so  called  which 
shows  no  trace  of  differentiation  of  organs,  consist- 
ing apparently  of  an  amorphous  sheet  of  a  protein 
compound,  irritable  to  a  low  degree  and  capable  of 
assimilating  food,  Professor  Huxley  has  given  the 
name  of  Bathybius  haeckelii.  The  circumstance 
which  gives  its  special  interest  to  Bathybius  is  its 
enormous  extent:  whether  it  be  continuous  in  one  vast 
sheet,  or  broken  up  into  circumscribed  individual 
particles,  it  appears  to  extend  over  a  large  part  of 
the  bed  of  the  ocean;  and  as  no  living  thing,  however 
slowly  it  may  live,  is  ever  perfectly  at  rest,  but  is 
continually  acting  and  reacting  with  its  surround- 
ings, the  bottom  of  the  sea  becomes  like  the  surface 
of  the  sea  and  of  the  land — a  theatre  of  change,  per- 
forming its  part  in  maintaining  the  "balance  of  or- 
ganic nature." 

Living  upon  and  among  this  Bathybius,  we  find 
a  multitude  of  other  protozoa — foraminifera  and 


DEEP   SEA   FAUNA  1307 

other  rhizopods,  radiolarians,  and  sponges;  and  we 
as  yet  know  very  little  of  the  life-history  of  these 
groups. 

Many  foraminifera  of  different  groups  inhabit 
the  deep  water,  lying  upon  or  mixed  in  the  upper 
layer  of  the  globigerina  ooze,  or  fixed  to  some  foreign 
body,  such  as  a  sponge,  coral,  or  stone;  and  all  of 
these  are  remarkable  for  their  large  size. 

The  few  hauls  of  the  dredge  which  we  have  al- 
ready had  in  deep  water  have  been  enough  to  teach 
us  that  our  knowledge  of  sponges  is  in  its  infancy—- 
that those  which  we  have  collected  from  shallow 
water  along  our  shores,  and  even  those  few  which 
have  been  brought  up  from  deep  water  on  fishing 
lines,  and  have  surprised  us  by  the  beauty  of  their 
forms  and  the  delicacy  of  their  lustre,  are  the  mere 
margin  and  remnant  of  a  wonderfully  diversified 
sponge-fauna  which  appears  to  extend  in  endless  va- 
riety over  the  whole  of  the  bottom  of  the  sea. 

The  most  remarkable  new  forms  are  referable  to 
the  group  which  seems  to  be  in  a  sense  special  to  deep 
water,  the  Hexactinellidae.  One  of  the  most  abun- 
dant and  singular  forms  belonging  to  this  order, 
Holtenia  carpenteri,  is  an  oval  or  sphere  90  to  100 
mm.  in  height,  with  one  large  oscular  opening  at 
the  top  about  30  mm.  in  diameter,  whence  a  simple 
cylindrical  cavity  cupped  at  the  bottom  passes  down 
vertically  into  the  substance  of  the  sponge  to  the 
depth  of  55  mm.  The  outer  wall  of  the  sponge  con- 
sists of  a  complicated  network  of  the  cross-like  heads 
of  five-rayed  spicules.  One  ray  of  each  spicule  dips 
directly  into  the  body  of  the  sponge,  and  the  other 


1308  THE   STORY   OF   THE   UNIVERSE 

four,  which  are  at  right  angles  to  it,  form  a  cross  on 
the  surface,  giving  it  a  beautiful  stellate  appear- 
ance. The  silicious  rays  of  one  star  curve  toward 
and  meet  the  rays  of  the  neighboring  stars,  and  run 
parallel  with  them.  All  the  rays  of  all  the  spicules 
are  thickly  invested  with  consistent  semi-transparent 
gelatinous  matter,  which  binds  their  concurrent 
branches  together  by  an  elastic  union,  and  fills  up 
the  angles  of  the  meshes  with  softly  curved  viscous 
masses.  This  arrangement  of  the  spicules,  free  and 
yet  adhering  together  by  long  elastic  connections, 
produces  a  strong,  flexible,  and  very  extensible  tissue. 
The  cylindrical  oscular  cavity  within  the  sponge  is 
lined  with  nearly  the  same  kind  of  network. 

When  the  sponge  is  living,  the  interstices  of  the 
silicious  network  are  filled  up  both  outside  and  in 
with  a  delicate  fenestrated  membrane  formed  of  a 
glairy  substance  like  white  of  egg,  which  is  con- 
stantly moving,  extending  or  contracting  the  fene- 
strae,  and  gliding  over  the  surface  of  the  spicules. 
This  "sarcode,"  which  is  the  living  flesh  of  the 
sponge,  contains  distributed  through  it  an  infinite 
number  of  very  minute  spicules,  presenting  the  most 
singular  and  elegant  forms  very  characteristic  of 
each  species  of  sponge.  A  constant  current  of  water 
carried  along  by  the  action  of  cilia  passes  in  by 
apertures  in  the  outer  wall,  courses  through  the 
passages  in  the  loose  texture  of  the  intermediate 
sponge-substance  carrying  organic  matter  in  solution 
and  particles  of  nourishment  into  all  its  interstices, 
and  finally  passes  out  by  the  large  "osculum"  at  the 
top.  Over  the  upper  third  of  the  sponge  a  multitude 


DEEP   SEA   FAUNA  1309 

of  radiating  rigid  silicious  spicules  form  a  kind  of 
ornamental  frill,  and  from  the  iWer  third  a  perfect 
maze  of  delicate  glassy  filaments,  like  fine  white  hair, 
spread  out  in  all  directions,  penetrating  the  semi-fluid 
mud,  and  supporting  the  sponge  in  its  precarious  bed 
by  increasing  its  surface  indefinitely  while  adding 
but  little  to  its  weight. 

This  is  only  one  of  the  ways  by  which  sponges 
anchor  themselves  in  the  ooze  of  the  deep  sea. 
Hyalonema  sends  right  down  through  the  soft 
mud  a  coiled  wisp  of  strong  spicules,  each  as  thick 
as  a  knitting  needle,  which  open  out  into  a  brush 
as  the  bed  gets  firmer,  and  fix  the  sponge  in  its  place 
somewhat  on  the  principle  of  a  screw  pile.  A  very 
singular  sponge  from  deep  water  off  the  Lofoten 
Islands  spreads  into  a  thin  circular  cake,  and  adds 
to  its  surface  by  sending  out  a  flat  border  of  silky 
spicules,  like  a  fringe  of  white  floss  round  a 
little  yellow  mat;  and  the  lovely  Euplectella,  whose 
beauty  is  imbedded  up  to  its  fretted  lid  in  the  gray 
mud  of  the  seas  of  the  Philippines,  is  supported  by 
a  frill  of  spicules  standing  up  round  it  like  Queen 
Elizabeth's  ruff. 

The  sponges  of  the  deep-water  ooze  are  by  no 
means  confined  to  one  group.  The  Hexactinellidae 
are  perhaps  the  most  abundant,  but  corticate  sponges 
even,  closely  allied  to  those  which  look  so  rigid  when 
fixed  to  stones  in  shallow  water,  send  out  long  anchor- 
ing spicules  and  balance  themselves  in  the  soft  mud ; 
and  off  the  coast  of  Portugal  Mr.  Gwyn  Jeffreys 
dredged  in  1870  several  small  forms  of  the  Halichon- 
dridae,  with  long  supporting  fibrous  beards. 


1310  THE   STORY  OF  THE   UNIVERSE 

From  its  appearance  when  brought  up  Holtenia 
evidently  lives  buried  in  the  mud  to  its  upper  fringe 
of  spicules.  When  freshly  dredged,  it  is  loaded  with 
pale  gray  semi-fluid  sarcode,  full  of  Globigerinae, 
Triloculinae,  and  other  rhizopods,  and  covered  in  our 
northern  localities  with  the  little  ophiurid  Amphiura 
abyssicola,  Sars,  and  the  exquisitely  delicate  trans- 
parent clam,  Pecten  viterus  Chemnitz.  Holtenia 
extends  from  the  Butt  of  Lewis  to  Gibraltar,  in 
from  500  to  1,000  fathoms. 

In  the  Hexactinellidae  all  the  spicules,  so  far  as 
we  know,  are  formed  on  the  hexradiate  plan;  that  is 
to  say,  there  is  a  primary  axis,  which  may  be  long 
or  short,  and  at  one  point  four  secondary  rays  cross 
this  central  shaft  at  right  angles.  In  many  of  the 
Hexactinellidae  the  spicules  are  all  distinct,  and  com- 
bined, as  in  Holtenia,  by  a  small  quantity  of  nearly 
transparent  sarcode;  but  in  others,  as  in  "Venus's 
flower-basket,"  and  the  nearly  equally  beautiful 
genera  Iphiteon,  Aphrocallistes,  and  Farrea,  the 
spicules  run  together  and  make  a  continuous  silicious 
network.  When  this  is  the  case  the  sponge  may  be 
boiled  in  nitric  acid,  and  all  the  organic  matter  and 
other  impurities  thus  removed,  when  the  skeleton 
comes  out  a  lovely  lacy  structure  of  the  clearest 
glass.  The  six-rayed  form  of  the  spicules  gives  the 
network  which  is  the  result  of  their  fusion  great 
flexibility  of  design,  with  a  characteristic  tendency, 
however,  to  square  meshes. 

Off  the  Butt  of  Lewis,  in  water  of  450  to  500 
fathoms,  we  met  on  two  occasions  with  full-grown 
specimens  of  a  species  of  the  remarkable  genus 


DEEP   SEA   FAUNA  1311 

Hyalonema,  with  the  coils  in  the  larger  examples  up- 
ward of  40  centimetres  in  length. 

A  bundle  of  from  200  to  300  threads  of  trans- 
parent silica,  glistening  with  a  silky  lustre,  like  the 
most  brilliant  spun-glass — each  thread  from  30  to  40 
centimetres  long,  in  the  middle  the  thickness  of  a 
knitting-needle,  and  gradually  tapering  toward 
either  end  to  a  fine  point;  the  whole  bundle  coiled 
like  a  strand  of  rope  into  a  lengthened  spiral,  the 
threads  of  the  middle  and  upper  portions  remaining 
compactly  coiled  by  a  permanent  twist  of  the  indi- 
vidual threads;  the  lower  part  of  the  coil,  which, 
when  the  sponge  is  living,  is  imbedded  in  the  mud, 
frayed  out  so  that  the  glassy  threads  stand  separate 
from  one  another,  like  the  bristles  of  a  glittering 
brush;  the  upper  portion  of  the  coil  close  and  com- 
pact, imbedded  perpendicularly  in  a  conical  or 
cylindrical  sponge;  and  usually  part  of  the  upper 
portion  of  the  silicious  coil,  and  part  of  the  sponge- 
substance,  covered  with  a  brownish  leathery  coating, 
whose  surface  is  studded  with  the  polypes  of  an  al- 
cyonarian  zoophyte — such  is  the  general  effect  of  a 
complete  specimen  of  Hyalonema. 

The  genus  was  first  known  in  Europe  by  specimens 
brought  from  Japan  by  the  celebrated  naturalist  and 
traveler,  Von  Siebold;  and  Japanese  examples  of 
Hyalonema  sieboldi,  Gray,  may  now  be  found  more 
or  less  perfect  in  most  of  the  European  museums. 
When  the  first  specimen  of  Hyalonema  was  brought 
home,  the  other  vitreous  sponges  which  approach  it 
so  closely  in  all  essential  points  of  structure  were 
unknown. 


1312  THE   STORY   OF  THE   UNIVERSE 

In  essential  structure  Hyalonema  very  closely  re- 
sembles Holtenia,  and  the  more  characteristic  forms 
of  the  Hexactinellidae.  On  one  of  the  Holteniae  from 
the  Butt  of  Lewis,  there  was  a  little  accumulation 
of  greenish  granular  matter  among  the  fibres.  On 
placing  this  under  the  microscope  it  turned  out  to 
be  a  number  of  very  young  sponges,  scarcely  out  of 
their  germ  state.  They  were  all  at  first  sight  very 
much  alike,  minute  pear-shaped  bodies,  with  a  long 
delicate  pencil  of  silky  spicules  taking  the  place  of 
the  pear-stalk.  On  closer  examination,  however, 
these  little  germs  proved  to  belong  to  different  spe- 
cies, each  showing  unmistakably  the  characteristic 
forms  of  its  special  spicules.  Most  of  them  were  the 
young  of  Tisiphonia,  but  among  them  were  several 
Holteniae,  and  one  or  two  were  at  once  referred  to 
Hyalonema.  In  two  or  three  hauls  in  the  same  local- 
ity we  got  them  in  every  subsequent  stage — beautiful 
little  pear-shaped  things,  a  cehtimetre  long,  with  a 
single  osculum  at  the  top,  and  the  wisp  like  a  small 
brush.  At  this  stage  the  Palythoa  is  usually  absent, 
but  when  the  body  of  the  sponge  has  attained  15  mm. 
or  so  in  length  very  generally  a  little  pink  tubercle 
may  be  detected  at  the  point  of  junction  between 
the  sponge  body  and  the  coil,  the  germ  of  the  first 
polype. 

During  Mr.  Gwyn  Jeffreys's  cruise  in  1870,  two 
specimens  of  a  wonderful  sponge  belonging  also  to 
the  Hexactinellidae  were  dredged  in  374  fathoms  in 
rocky  ground  off  Cape  St.  Vincent.  The  larger  of 
these  forms  a  complete  vase  of  a  very  elegant  form, 
nearly  ninety  centimetres  in  diameter  at  the  top  and 


DEEP   SEA   FAUNA  1313 

about  sixty  in  height.  The  sponge  came  up  folded 
together,  and  had  much  the  appearance  of  a  piece 
of  coarse,  grayish-colored  blanket. 

Near  the  mouth  of  the  Strait  of  Gibraltar  a  number 
of  species  were  taken  in  considerable  quantity,  be- 
longing to  a  group  which  were  at  first  confused  with 
the  Hexactinellida?,  on  account  of  their  frequently 
forming  a  similar  and  equally  beautiful  continuous 
network  of  silica,  so  as  to  assume  the  same  resem- 
blance to  delicate  lace  when  boiled  in  nitric  acid. 
The  Corallio-spongiae  differ,  however,  from  the 
Hexactinellidae  in  one  very  fundamental  character. 
While  in  the  latter  the  spicule  is  hexradiate,  in  the 
former  it  consists  of  a  shaft  with  three  diverging 
rays  at  one  end. 

This  group  of  sponges  are  as  yet  imperfectly 
known.  They  seem  to  pass  into  such  forms  as 
Geodia  and  Tethya;  and  the  typical  example  with 
which  we  are  most  familiar  is  the  genus  Dactylo- 
calyx,  represented  by  the  cup-shaped  pumice-like 
masses  which  are  thrown  ashore  from  time  to  time  on 
the  West  Indian  Islands. 

Twelve  species  of  stony  corals  were  dredged  in 
1869. 

From  their  considerable  size,  the  length  and 
rigidity  of  their  straggling  rays,  and  their  habit  of 
clinging  to  fixed  objects,  the  Echinodermata  are  not 
very  readily  taken  by  the  dredge,  but  they  fall  an 
easy  prey  to  the  "hempen  tangles."  It  is  possible  that 
this  circumstance  may  to  a  certain  extent  exaggerate 
their  apparent  abundance  at  great  depths,  but  we 
have  direct  evidence  in  the  actual  numbers  which 


1314  THE   STORY   OF   THE   UNIVERSE 

are  brought  up  that  in  some  places  they  must  be 
wonderfully  numerous;  and  we  frequently  dredge 
sponges  and  corals  actually  covered  with  them  in  the 
attitudes  in  which  they  lived,  nestling  among  their 
fibres  and  in  the  angles  of  their  branches.  I  have 
counted  seventy-three  examples  of  Amphiura  abyssi- 
cola,  small  and  large,  sticking  to  one  Holtenia. 

Both  on  account  of  their  beauty  and  extreme 
rarity,  and  of  the  important  part  they  have  borne 
in  the  fauna  of  some  of  the  past  periods  of  the 
earth's  history,  the  first  order  of  the  Echinoderms, 
the  Crinoidea,  has  always  had  a  special  interest  to 
naturalists;  and,  on  the  watch  as  we  were  for 
missing  links  which  might  connect  the  present  with 
the  past,  we  eagerly  welcomed  any  indication  of  their 
presence.  Crinoids  were  very  abundant  in  the  seas 
of  the  Silurian  period.  But  during  the  lapse  of 
ages  the  whole  order  seems  to  have  been  worsted 
in  the  ''struggle  for  life."  They  become  scarce  in  the 
newer  Mesozoic  beds,  still  scarcer  in  the  Tertiaries, 
and  up  to  within  the  last  few  years  only  two 
living  stalked  crinoids  were  known  in  the  seas 
of  the  present  period,  and  these  appeared  to  be 
confined  to  deep  water  in  the  seas  of  the  Antilles, 
whence  fishermen  from  time  to  time  bring  up  muti- 
lated specimens  on  their  lines.  Their  existence  has 
been  known  for  more  than  a  century;  but  although 
many  eyes  have  been  watching  for  them,  until  very 
lately  not  more  than  twenty  specimens  had  reached 
Europe,  and  of  these  only  two  showed  all  the  joints 
and  plates  of  the  skeleton,  and  the  soft  parts  were 
lost  in  all. 


DEEP   SEA    FAUNA  1315 

These  two  species  belong  to  the  genus  Pentacrinus, 
which  is  well  represented  in  the  beds  of  the  lias  and 
oolite,  and  sparingly  in  the  white  chalk;  and  are 
named  respectively  Pentacrinus  asteria,  L.,  and  P. 
mulleri,  Oersted.  The  first  of  these  has  been  known 
in  Europe  since  the  year  1755,  when  a  specimen  was 
brought  to  Paris  from  the  island  of  Martinique,  and 
described  by  Guettard  in  the  Memoirs  of  the  Royal 
Academy  of  Sciences.  For  the  next  hundred  years 
an  example  turned  up  now  and  then  from  the 
Antilles. 

Pentacrinus  asteria  may  be  taken  as  the  type  of 
its  order;  I  will  therefore  describe  it  briefly.  The 
animal  consists  of  two  well-marked  portions,  a  stem 
and  a  head.  The  stem,  which  is  often  from  40  to 
60  centimetres  in  length,  consists  of  a  series  of 
flattened  calcareous  joints;  it  may  be  snapped  over 
at  the  point  of  junction  between  any  two  of  these 
joints,  and  by  slipping  the  point  of  a  penknife  into 
the  next  suture  a  single  joint  may  be  removed  entire. 
The  joint  has  a  hole  in  the  centre,  through  which 
one  might  pass  a  fine  needle.  This  hole  forms  part 
of  a  canal  filled  during  life  with  a  gelatinous  nutri- 
ent matter  which  runs  through  trie  whole  length 
of  the  stem,  branches  in  a  complicated  way  through 
the  plates  of  the  cup,  and  finally  passes  through 
the  axis  of  each  of  the  joints  of  the  arms,  and  of 
the  ultimate  pinnules  which  fringe  them.  On  the 
upper  and  lower  surfaces  of  the  stem-joint  there 
is  a  very  graceful  and  characteristic  figure  of  five 
radiating  oval  leaf-like  spaces,  each  space  surrounded 
by  a  border  of  minute  alternate  ridges  and  grooves. 


1316  THE   STORY  OF   THE   UNIVERSE 

The  ridges  of  the  upper  surface  of  a  joint  fit  into 
the  grooves  of  the  lower  surface  of  the  joint  above 
it;  so  that,  though  from  being  made  up  of  many 
joints  the  stem  admits  of  a  certain  amount  of  motion, 
that  motion  is  very  limited. 

As  the  border  of  each  star-like  figure  exactly 
fits  the  border  of  the  star  above  and  below,  the  five 
leaflets  within  the  border  are  likewise  placed  directly 
one  above  the  other.  Within  these  leaflets  the 
limy  matter  which  makes  up  the  great  bulk  of  the 
joint  is  more  loosely  arranged  than  it  is  outside,  and 
five  oval  bands  of  strong  fibres  pass  in  the  inter- 
spaces right  through  the  joints,  from  joint  to  joint, 
from  one  end  of  the  stem  to  the  other.  These 
fibrous  bands  give  the  column  great  strength.  It 
is  by  no  means  easily  broken  even  when  dead  and 
dry.  They  also,  by  their  elasticity,  admit  a  certain 
amount  of  passive  motion.  There  are  no  muscles 
between  the  joints  of  the  stem,  so  that  the  animal 
does  not  appear  to  be  able  to  move  its  stalk  af 
will.  It  is  probably  only  gently  waved  by  the  tides 
and  currents,  and  by  the  movements  of  its  own  arms. 

In  Pentacrinus  asteria  about  every  seventeenth 
joint  of  the  lower  mature  part  of  the  stem  is  a  little 
deeper  or  thicker  than  the  others,  and  bears  a  whorl 
of  five  long  tendrils  or  cirri.  These  tendrils  have 
no  true  muscles;  they  have,  however,  some  power  of 
contracting  round  resisting  objects  which  they  touch, 
and  there  are  often  star-fishes  and  other  sea  animals 
entangled  among  them. 

Near  the  head  the  cirri  become  shorter  and 
smaller,  and  their  whorls  closer.  At  the  top  of  the 


DEEP   SEA   FAUNA  1317 

stem  five  little  calcareous  lumps  like  buttons  stand 
out  from  the  projecting  ridges,  and  upon  these  and 
upon  the  upper  part  of  the  stem  the  cup  which  holds 
the  viscera  of  the  animal  is  placed. 

All  the  ordinary  joints  of  the  arms  are  provided 
with  muscles  producing  various  motions,  and  bind- 
ing the  joints  firmly  together.  If  one  of  the  arms 
get  entangled,  or  fall  into  the  jaws  or  claws  of  an 
enemy,  by  a  jerk  the  star-fish  can  at  once  get  rid  o*f 
the  embarrassed  arm ;  and  as  all  this  group  have  a 
wonderful  power  of  reproducing  lost  parts,  the  arm 
is  soon  restored. 

Unfortunately,  most  of  the  examples  of  Penta- 
crinus  asteria  hitherto  procured  have  had  the  soft 
parts  destroyed  and  the  disk  more  or  less  injured. 
One  specimen,  however,  in  my  possession  is  quite 
perfect.  The  body  is  covered  above  by  a  membrane 
closely  tessellated  with  irregularly  formed  flat  plates. 
The  mouth  is  a  rounded  opening  of  considerable  size 
in  the  centre  of  the  disk,  and  opens  into  a  stomach 
passing  into  a  short  curved  intestine  which  ends  in 
a  long  excretory  tube — the  so-called  "proboscis"  of 
the  fossil  crinoids — which  rises  from  the  surface  of 
the  disk  near  the  mouth.  From  the  mouth  five 
deep  grooves,  bordered  on  either  side  by  small  square 
plates,  run  out  to  the  edge  of  the  disk,  and  are  con- 
tinuous with  the  grooves  on  the  upper  surface  of  the 
arms  and  pinnules,  while  in  the  angles  between  them 
five  thickened  masses  of  the  mailing  of  the  disk 
surround  the  mouth  like  valves.  These  were  at 
first  supposed  to  answer  the  purpose  of  teeth.  The 
crinoids,  however,  are  not  predatory  animals.  Their 


1318  THE   STORY   OF   THE    UNIVERSE 

nutrition  is  effected  in  a  very  gentle  manner.  The 
grooves  of  the  pinnules  and  arms  are  richly  ciliated. 
The  crinoid  expands  its  arms  like  the  petals  of  a  full- 
blown flower,  and  a  current  of  sea-water  bearing 
organic  matter  in  solution  and  suspension  is  carried 
by  the  cilia  along  the  brachial  and  radial  grooves 
to  the  mouth.  In  the  stomach  and  intestine  the 
water  is  exhausted  of  assimilable  matter,  and  the 
length  and  direction  of  the  excretory  proboscis  pre- 
vent the  exhausted  water  from  returning  at  once  into 
the  ciliated  passages. 

Two  other  fixed  crinoids  were  dredged  from  the 
Porcupine,  and  these  must  be  referred  to  the  Apio- 
crinidae, which  differ  from  all  other  sections  of  the 
order  in  the  structure  of  the  upper  part  of  the  stem. 

The  Apiocrinidae  attained  their  maximum  during 
the  Jurassic  period,  when  they  were  represented  by 
many  fine  species  of  the  genera  Apiocrinus  and 
Millericrinus.  The  chalk  genus  Bourguetticrinus 
shows  many  symptoms  of  degeneracy.  Rhizocrinus 
loffotensis,  M.  Sars,  was  discovered  in  the  year 
1864,  at  a  depth  of  about  300  fathoms,  off  the 
Lofoten  Islands,  by  G.  O.  Sars,  a  son  of  the  cele- 
brated Professor  of  Natural  History  in  the  Uni- 
versity of  Christiania,  by  whom  it  was  described  in 
the  year  1868.  It  is  obviously  a  form  of  the  Apio- 
crinidae still  more  degraded  than  Bourguetticrinus, 
which  it  closely  resembles. 

The  genus  Bathycrinus  must  also  be  referred  to  the 
Apiocrinidae,  since  the  lower  portion  of  the  head  con- 
sists of  a  gradually  expanding  funnel-shaped  piece, 
which  seems  to  be  composed  of  coalesced  upper  stem- 


DEEP   SEA   FAUNA  1319 

joints.  The  stem  of  Bathycrinus  gracilis  is  long  and 
delicate ;  in  one  example  of  a  stem  alone,  which  came 
up  in  the  same  haul  with  the  one  nearly  perfect 
specimen  which  was  procured,  it  was  90  mm.  in 
length. 

The  general  distribution  of  the  deep-sea  Asteridea 
has  already  been  referred  to.  Perhaps  the  most 
obvious  peculiarity  which  they  present  is  the  great 
preponderance  of  the  genera  Astrogonium,  Archas- 
ter,  Astropecten,  and  their  allies.  Genera  belong- 
ing to  other  groups  do  not  apparently  become  less 
numerous,  for  species  of  Asteracanthion,  Cribrella, 
Asteriscus,  ,and  Ophidiaster  are  as  abundant  as  they 
are  at  lesser  depths ;  but  as  we  go  down  new  species 
with  tessellated  mailing  on  the  disk  and  massive 
marginal  plates  seem  to  be  perpetually  added. 

Of  the  twenty-six  Echinoderms  dredged  from  the 
Porcupine,  seven — Porocidaris  purpurata,  Phor- 
mosoma  placenta,  Calveria  hystrix,  C.  fenestrata, 
Neolampas  rostellatus,  Pourtalesia  Jeffreys!,  and  P. 
phiale — are  forms  which  have  been  for  the  first 
time  brought  to  light  during  deep-sea  dredging 
operations,  whether  on  this  or  on  the  other  side  of 
the  Atlantic.  There  seems  little  doubt  that  these 
must  be  referred  to  the  abyssal  fauna,  upon  whose 
confines  we  are  now  only  beginning  to  encroach. 
Three  of  the  most  remarkable  generic  forms — Cal- 
veria, Neolampas,  and  Pourtalesia — have  been  found 
by  Alexander  Agassiz  among  the  results  of  the  deep 
dredging  operations  of  Count  Pourtales  in  the  Strait 
of  Florida,  showing  a  wide  lateral  distribution,  while 
even  a  deeper  interest  attaches  to  the  fact  that 


1320  THE  STORY  OF  THE   UNIVERSE 

while  one  family  type,  the  Echinothuridae,  has  been 
hitherto  only  known  in  a  fossil  state,  the  entire 
group  finds  nearer  allies  in  the  extinct  faunae  of  the 
chalk  or  of  the  earlier  Tertiaries  than  in  that  of 
the  present  period. 

Many  of  the  mollusca  from  the  deep  water  have 
hitherto  been  found  only  in  the  northern  portions  of 
the  area  examined,  and  are  generally  allied  to  north- 
ern forms. 

The  abyssal  mollusca  are  by  no  means  devoid  of 
color,  though,  as  a  rule,  they  are  paler  than  those 
from  shallow  water.  Neither  are  the  abyssal  mol- 
lusca universally  destitute  of  eyes.  A  new  species 
of  Pleurotoma  from  2,090  fathoms  had  a  pair  of 
well-developed  eyes  on  short  footstalks ;  and  a  Fusus 
from  1,207  fathoms  was  similarly  provided.  The 
presence  of  organs  of  sight  at  these  great  depths 
leaves  little  room  to  doubt  that  light  must  reach  even 
these  abysses  from  some  source.  From  many  con- 
siderations it  can  scarcely  be  sunlight.  The  whole 
of  the  light  beyond  a  certain  depth  might  be  due 
to  phosphorescence,  which  is  certainly  very  general, 
particularly  among  the  larvae  and  young  of  deep- 
sea  animals. 

"THE   MIMIC   FIRES   OF   OCEAN" 
— G.  CLARKE  NUTTALL 

NATURE  dazzles  the  eye  of  man  with  many 
wonderful    phenomena,    but   perhaps   never 
more  so  than  when  she  turns  the  gloomy  night  waters 
of  the  sea  into  a  sheet  of  silvery  fire.    At  these  times 


"THE   MIMIC   FIRES   OF   OCEAN"  1321 

every  movement  of  the  wave,  every  cleavage  of  the 
water  by  oar  or  prow,  reveals  in  its  dark  depths  a 
hidden  fire  which  scintillates  and  sparkles  with 
weird  and  mysterious  light.  The  spectacle  is  one  of 
absolute  fascination,  for  the  Spirit  of  Enchantment 
rests  upon  the  waters  and  reality  becomes  fairyland. 

The  ancients,  keenly  alive  to  a  sense  of  the  super- 
natural, saw  in  this  luminosity  a  manifestation  of 
some  unknown  power,  and  wondered;  the  ignorant 
read  in  it  a  portent  of  judgment  and  terror;  while 
in  all  ages  the  curious  and  the  searchers  after  knowl- 
edge have  speculated  as  to  its  cause.  But  just  as 
Nature  has  invested  its  appearance  with  a  halo  of 
mystery,  so  she  has  also  wrapped  in  much  obscurity 
its  immediate  cause;  and  thus,  though  in  the  course 
of  centuries  varying  suggestions  have  been  put  for- 
ward, nothing  with  any  finality  about  it  has  been 
arrived  at.  It  was  asserted  truly  that  certain  fishes 
were  luminous;  sharks  have  glowed  and  shone, 
shoals  of  herrings,  pilchards,  or  mackerel  have  been 
moving  masses  of  light,  and  the  fish  drawn  out  of  the 
water  have  lain  in  great  shining  heaps,  the  glow  of 
which  vanished  as  they  dried  and  died. 

Many  writers  have  described  the  passages  of  ships 
through  such  shoals — the  sheet  of  moving  flames — 
the  beautiful  pale  greenish  elf-light  that  the  fish  ex- 
hibited; while  poets  have  apostrophized  the  "mimic 
fires  of  ocean"  and  the  "lightnings  of  the  wave,"  and 
scientists  and  naturalists  have  in  turn  tried  to  ac- 
count for  their  power  of  luminosity.  Some  have  at- 
tributed it  to  the  presence  of  certain  substances  of  a 
fatty  nature  excreted  by  the  fish  and  adhering  to  the 


1322  THE  STORY   OF  THE   UNIVERSE 

surface  of  their  bodies;  others  have  declared  that 
it  is  due  to  a  subtle  power  of  the  fish  itself — a  form 
in  which  the  energy  of  life  shows  itself  under  certain 
conditions,  just  as  this  energy  may  be  exhibited  in 
heat,  or  motion,  or  electricity;  others,  again,  have 
ascribed  it  to  direct  absorption  and  transmission  of 
the  light  of  the  sun,  and  so  on.  Many  theories  have 
been  elaborated,  but  none  convincingly. 

But  now,  it  is  asserted,  the  secret  is  laid  bare. 

It  is  wonderful  how  many  secrets  the  searching 
light  of  the  Nineteenth  Century  is  claiming  to  reveal. 

It  is  only  lately  that  any  very  serious  effort  has 
been  made  to  study  this  phenomenon,  but  the  research 
has  been  abundantly  rewarded,  for  it  is  now  pretty 
certain  that  the  luminosity  is  due  to  the  presence  in 
the  water  of  various  kinds  of  bacteria. 

Now,  bacteria  are  the  very  smallest  living  organ- 
isms of  which  we  have  cognizance.  Millions  of 
them  can  lie  on  a  penny;  therefore,  to  produce  the 
gleaming  appearance  recognized  by  us  as  phos- 
phorescence, they  must  be  present  in  numbers  too 
enormous  even  to  contemplate  with  our  finite  minds. 
It  would  be  immeasurably  easier  to  reckon  with  the 
stars  for  multitude  than  with  these  phosphorescent 
bacteria.  They  are  colorless,  rodlike  bodies,  only 
known  to  us  in  the  land  revealed  by  the  highest 
powers  of  the  microscope,  and  careful  comparison 
shows  minor  differences  among  them.  For  instance, 
some  of  them  are  capable  of  independent  motion — 
we  can  hardly  call  it  swimming — others  are  non- 
motile,  some  are  inclosed  in  a  jelly-like  covering, 
others  are  without  this  sheath.  Their  power  of  mo- 


"THE   MIMIC   FIRES   OF   OCEAN"  1323 

tion  is  probably  due  to  excessively  fine  hairs  at  their 
extremities,  which,  moving  to  and  fro  in  the  water, 
act  the  part  of  oars.  These  cilia  have  not  been  found 
in  all  forms  of  bacteria  which  move,  but  their  pres- 
ence is  inferred,  since  every  advance  in  the  study  of 
motile  forms  increases  the  number  of  bacteria  which 
are  seen  to  possess  them. 

These  light-producing  bacteria  are  known  as 
photo-bacteria,  and  so  far  some  half-dozen  varieties 
have  been  distinguished  and  named.  The  names  in 
such  cases  are  usually  either  given  from  the  locality 
of  their  appearance  (thus,  photo-bacterium  Bal- 
ticum,  found  in  the  Baltic),  from  their  discoverer 
(for  example,  photo-bacterium  Fischeri,  after  Pro- 
fessor Fischer),  or  from  some  striking  attribute  (to 
wit,  photo-bacterium  phosphorescens,  the  commonest 
light-giving  species). 

A  Dutchman  named  Beyerinck  has  made  a  special 
study  of  these  photo-bacteria,  and  has  experimented 
with  them  in  a  great  number  of  ways  to  determine, 
if  possible,  why  they  should  thus  become  illuminated, 
and  if  the  light  plays  any  notable  part  in  their  life- 
history;  but  his  results  are,  seemingly,  all  more  or  less 
of  a  negative  nature.  He  can  not  find  that  it  has 
any  very  important  function.  The  breathing  of  these 
tiny  organisms  is  not,  apparently,  in  any  way  bound 
up  with  it;  their  nutrition,  growth,  and  development 
go  on  quite  well  even  if  they  are  placed  under  such 
conditions  that  their  luminosity  is  arrested;  in  no 
way,  indeed,  is  it  a  vital  process.  It  only  seems  to 
depend  on  the  food  which  the  bacteria  feed  upon  and 
the  presence  of  oxygen.  Given  suitable  food  and 


1324  THE  STORY   OF  THE   UNIVERSE 

plenty  of  fresh  air,  and  they  exhibit  their  characteris- 
tic light;  deprive  them  of  one  or  the  other  and  they 
no  longer  shine. 

This  knowledge  helps  us  to  understand,  then,  the 
phenomenon  of  phosphorescence.  It  is  visible  only 
at  night  because  in  the  full  glare  of  day  the  greater 
light  overpowers  the  lesser;  it  is  visible  at  certain 
times  and  seasons  because  the  conditions  are  such  as 
to  evoke  it.  And  what  is  favorable  for  the  lighting 
up  of  a  single  bacterium  is  favorable  for  all;  hence 
the  myriad  multitudes  of  infinitesimal  units,  each  set 
glowing  with  its  tiny  light,  are  sufficient  in  the  sum 
total  to  put  a  whole  ocean  aflame. 

It  would,  of  course,  be  presumptuous,  and  doubt- 
less erroneous,  to  say  that  all  the  phosphorescence  of 
the  se,a  is  due  solely  to  photo-bacteria;  it  can  only 
be  asserted  in  the  present  state  of  our  knowledge  that 
they  are  certainly  responsible  for  a  great  share  of 
it.  But  this  wonder  of  nature  must  now  be  regarded 
as  yet  another  instance  of  the  mighty  results  accom- 
plished through  the  agency  of  the  smallest  of  living 
things. 

THE  JELLY-FISH   AND   OTHER 
HYDROZOA.— P.  MARTIN   DUNCAN 

IF  anybody  were  asked  to  name  the  commonest  ob- 
jects on  a  sandy  or  pebbly  seashore,  the  reply  would 
be — sea-weed,  crabs,  limpets,  a  stranded  jelly-fish, 
looking  like  so  much  blubber,  and  a  sea-gull  flying 
overhead.  The  first  three  things  really  belong  to  the 
shore ;  the  bird  is  a  visitor  that  is  looking  after  food, 


THE   JELLY-FISH  1325 

and  the  large,  turned-upside-down,  basin-shaped, 
jelly-looking  mass  is  a  waif  from  the  ocean.  If  one 
of  these  stranded  jelly-fish  is  looked  at,  as  it  lies  on 
the  sand,  its  shape  appears  to  be  something  like  that 
of  an  umbrella  without  the  stick.  It  is  thick,  how- 
ever, and  has  some  curious  markings  about  its  sur- 
face and  inside.  Even  something  like  a  fringe  of 
thick  hairs  may  be  detected  around  the  edge.  On 
trying  to  take  it  up  or  turn  it  over,  the  fingers  go 
into  it,  so  readily  does  the  animal  tear;  but  on  get- 
ting the  umbrella  on  its  back,  the  underneath  part  is 
seen  to  be  made  up,  in  the  middle,  of  some  projections 
slightly  more  solid  than  the  rest  of  the  body;  and  if 
put  between  them,  the  finger  passes  through  a  sort 
of  tube  into  a  cavity  in  the  body,  which  is  the 
stomach. 

Some  of  these  jelly-fish,  or  Medusae,  as  they  are 
called,  are  pounds  in  weight;  but  after  a  while  only 
a  shred  of  membrane-looking  stuff  remains,  the 
water  which  makes  up  nearly  all  the  animal  having 
drained  away.  It  is  evident  that  the  large  Medusa? 
grow  from  small  ones,  and  that  there  are  many  kinds 
of  them,  some  of  which  are  always  small.  A  great 
jelly-fish,  two  feet  across,  Was  once  a  little  one,  lead- 
ing exactly  the  same  life.  They  grow,  and  to  grow 
they  must  have  nourishment;  they  are  never  still, 
and  their  muscles,  transparent  as  they  may  be,  have 
to  be  nourished,  or  their  strength  would  soon  give 
way.  They  require  not  only  food,  but  also  air  in 
the  water,  so  that  they  consume  it,  and  make  its 
oxygen  gas  of  use  to  them.  They  seek  the  light  in 
a  remarkable  manner,  and  get  out  of  the  way 


1326  THE   STORY   OF  THE   UNIVERSE 

of  things  very  gracefully,  and  their  motions  are 
rhythmical,  like  the  ticks  of  a  clock,  in  succession. 
Have  they  nerves  and  eyes?  Science  answers  in  the 
affirmative.  These  creatures,  consisting-  of  a  vast 
proportion  of  sea-water,  breathe,  digest,  and  feed. 
More  than  this,  they  produce  young;  and' if  they  are 
pale  in  color,  bluish,  or  roseate  in  hue  during  the 
day,  they  are  the  glory  of  the  deep  during  the  night; 
and  each  one  is  a  globe  of  light,  the  luminousness 
being  the  result  of  the  action  of  the  mysterious  energy 
of  life  upon  matter. 

Many  of  the  jelly-fish  found  on  the  shores  dead 
and  injured  are  eighteen  inches  across,  and  it  is  not 
uncommon  to  see  one  swimming  freely  whose  body 
is  larger  than  that.  Yet  in  spite  of  this  size,  and  of 
the  gifts  of  the  creature,  it  has  one  of  the  shortest  of 
lives,  and  it  is  born,  grown,  and  dead  between  the 
spring  and  the  winter. 

On  examining  a  large  jelly-fish,  it  will  be  noticed 
to  have  not  only  four  round  bodies  on  the  top, 
round  the  centre,  and  the  four  lobes  hanging  down 
beneath,  but  that  the  edges  of  the  body  are  not 
quite  round,  but  are  notched,  so  as  to  make  eight 
lobes  to  it.  And  if  a  little  care  be  taken,  marks  can 
be  seen  on  the  under  part  of  the  body,  from  the  round 
centre  spots  to  each  of  the  eight  splits  in  the  disk; 
and  a  magnifying-glass  shows  a  little  substance  there 
which  feels  gritty,  and  is  sometimes  colored.  Other 
branching  tube-marks  pass  from  the  midst  of  the 
body  to  the  edge  of  the  umbrella,  and  a  tube  runs  all 
round  the  edge.  The  tubes  communicate  in  the  midst 
of  the  body  with  a  cavity,  into  which  the  finger  can 


Typical  Radiolaria 

i,  Rhizosphaera;   2,  Sphserozoum;   3,  Actinomma;   4,  Lithomespilus;   5,  Ommatocampe; 
6,  Carpocaium;   7,  Challengeron;   8.  Heliosphaera;   9,  Clathrocyclas;    10,  Dictyophimus 


THE   JELLY-FISH  1827 

pass  between  the  four  under  lobes — the  stomach — 
and  the  digested  matters  pass  into  them  to  nourish  the 
creature.  Around  the  disk  or  umbrella,  and  outside 
the  circular  tube,  is  the  fringe  of  hairs  which  have, 
to  a  certain  extent,  to  do  with  the  capture  of  prey. 
Each  consists  of  a  filmy  substance,  in  which  are  fixed 
thread-cells,  not  very  unlike  those  of  the  sea-anemone, 
but  they  have  longer  barbs  and  sharper  thorns 
stretching  out  from  them.  Any  violence  or  irritation 
causes  the  thread  to  shoot  forth  and  to  injure.  The 
rest  of  the  body  of  the  Medusa  is  covered  with  an  ex- 
cessively thin  skin,  which  has  movable  cilia  upon  it. 
It  is  supposed,  and  with  some  reason — for  nervous 
threads  and  bodies  have  been  found  on  the  disk, 
close  to  the  gritty  bodies  especially — that  these  last 
are  eyes,  or  ears,  or  both.  The  nerves  supply  the 
muscles  that  move  the  umbrella,  and  cause  it  to  ex- 
pand and  contract,  and  the  muscles  are  remarkable, 
for  some  are  not  simple  contracting  fibres  all  made 
of  one  piece,  as  in  the  Anemone  tribe. 

The  jelly-fish,  when  in  full  vigor  and  weighing 
many  pounds,  must  catch  and  eat  much,  and  the  man- 
ner in  which  this  is  done  is  by  no  means  perfectly 
understood.  The  food  is  digested,  and  the  results  are 
taken  from  the  stomach  into  the  numerous  tubes  in 
the  body,  where  they  nourish  the  tissues.  The  move- 
ments of  the  animal  and  its  extremely  delicate  mem- 
branes enable  much  water  to  come  in  contact  with 
it,  and  it  breathes  by  that  means,  for  there  are  no 
special  gills  or  lungs. 

The  four  round  spots  on  the  top  of  the  body, 
sometimes  white  and  sometimes  red  in  color,  are 

C  VOL.   IV. 


1328  THE   STORY   OF   THE   UNIVERSE 

spaces  in  the  body,  and  they  open  into  the  central 
stomach.  The  circles  of  these  chambers  are  lined 
with  ciliate  membrane,  and  in  some  places  it  is  ar- 
ranged in  folds,  and  in  them  the  eggs  or  ova  form. 
Little  oval  or  roundish  things,  like  pins'  heads  are 
they:  they  burst  forth  and  pass  out  of  the  stomach, 
and  then  through  the  canal  into  the  four  lobes  hang- 
ing' down  like  pouting  lips.  Here  they  rest  a  while 
until  a  little  grown,  and  they  start  out  on  their  jour- 
ney of  life  in  the  autumn  time  as  little  oval  or  long 
things  made  up  of  cells,  the  outside  ones  having  mov- 
able hairs  also  on  them.  Totally  unlike  the  parent,  the 
tiny  offspring  floats  off  with  the  tide  and  does  a  little 
work  in  moving  itself  with  its  hairy  covering.  Sooner 
or  later  this  minute  thing,  which  is  called  a  planula, 
settles  on  a  stone  or  piece  of  sea-weed,  and  begins 
to  grow.  First  of  all  its  outer  skin  is  formed  into 
a  hollow  on  the  top,  a  kind  of  basin-shaped  cavity 
being  produced.  This  is  the  future  stomach.  Then 
some  little  projections  grow  around  the  hollow,  and 
stick  out  in  the  water  like  so  many  rays,  and  they 
increase  in  number  and  length  very  rapidly.  Under 
this  shape  the  creature  has  been  described  as  a  hydra 
or  a  polype,  and  it  really  resembles  a  small  sea-anem- 
one with  very  long  and  slender  tentacles.  But  the 
internal  anatomy  differs.  The  creature  is  all  stomach 
and  tentacles,  and  it  grows  by  catching  small  prey. 
All  the  elaborate  tissues  of  the  jelly-fish  are  absent 
and  the  creature  can  not  move.  It  is  this  curious  con- 
dition of  life  that  brings  the  jelly-fish  tribe  within 
notice  of  a  seashore  observer,  for  those  little  hydras 
live  in  some  places  at  low-water  mark.  The  knowl- 


Typical  Radiolaria 

i,  Rhizosphaera;   2,  Sphaerozoum;   3,  Actinomma;  4,  Lithomespilus;   5,  Ommatocampe; 
6,  Carpocaium;   7,  Challengeron;   8,  Heliosphaera;  9,  ClathrocycLis;    10,  Dictyophimu  ; 


THE  JELLY-FISH  1329 

edge  that  the  hydra  was  the  child  of  the  jelly-fish 
was  obtained  many  years  ago  by  a  Scotch  and  by  a 
Scandinavian  naturalist.  It  was  known  that  some 
small  kinds  of  jelly-fish  which  were  kept  in  sea-water 
in  an  aquarium  disappeared  altogether  in  the  late 
autumn.  Then  it  was  noticed  that  there  were  many 
very  small  things  with  tentacles,  on  the  sides  of  the 
glass,  which  had  not  been  noticed  before.  And  at 
last  the  curious  discovery  was  made  that  these  hydras 
or  planulas  reproduced  jelly-fish  the  next  year.  This 
is  a  very  strange  story,  and  the  course  of  nature's 
proceeding  is,  that  when  food  has  become  scarce  and 
the  boisterous  waves  would  become  fatal  to  the  deli- 
cate Medusa,  it  shall  lay  eggs  which  produce  crea- 
tures that  can  settle  down  out  of  the  way  of  the  rush 
of  water,  and  that  require  but  little  food.  Then  in 
the  next  year  when  food  is  in  plenty,  the  progeny 
separate  into  jelly-fish  like  the  parent.  The  hydras 
or  progeny  have  no  power  of  laying  eggs;  they  digest 
and  produce  the  creature  that  shall  lay  eggs.  The 
Scandinavian  naturalists  and  Germans  called  this 
"alternate  generation,"  and  named  the  hydra  the 
nurse  of  the  jelly-fishes.  This  is  the  method  by 
which  most  of  the  jelly-fish,  which  may  be  occasion- 
ally seen  stranded  on  the  coast,  were  produced; 
but  there  are  some  whose  planulas  do  not  settle 
down,  but  are  always  free  swimmers,  and  they  divide 
into  Medusae  in  the  sea. 

This  intensely  interesting  course  of  life  is  modified 
in  all  the  hundreds  of  kinds  of  creatures  which  are 
connected  with  the  jelly-fish  in  classification,  by  their 
having  many  structures  in  common.  The  creatures 


1330  THE   STORY    OF   THE   UNIVERSE 

thus  classified  with  the  jelly-fish  are  called  Hydrozoa, 
or  Water  Animals,  and  they  pass  two  lives,  one  of 
which  is  commonly  observed  on  the  seashore  every- 
where. One  life  is  a  fixed  one,  and  the  other  is  a 
free  swimming  one;  in  one  stage  it  is  eating  and 
drinking,  and  in  the  other,  these  functions  are  not 
always  or  often  carried  out.  The  egg-laying  and 
perpetuation  of  the  animal  are  the  duty  of  the  greater 
part  of  the  beautiful  branched  and  hair-like  things 
which  are  arranged  by  visitors  to  the  seaside  in  pat- 
terns, and  retained  as  memorials  of  pleasant  days, 
and  which  are  popularly  called  sea-weeds.  They  are 
not  such  things,  but  are  the  delicate  stems,  branches, 
and  bud-like  homes  of  the  parents  of  tiny  jelly-fish, 
which  are  only  to  be  caught  in  the  open  sea.  These 
horny  stems  and  branches  end  in  creatures  with  ten- 
tacles or  feelers,  and  they  live  between  tides,  in  rock 
pools,  and  at  low  water. 

Sometimes  these  fragile,  plant-looking  things  are 
fixed  on  to  stones  or  sea-weed,  and  some  get  a  ride  by 
growing  on  shells,  inhabited,  since  the  death  of  their 
original  possessor,  by  the  Hermit  Crab. 

One  very  numerous  tribe  of  these  feathery-looking 
weeds,  but  which  are  truly  animals,  is  common  every- 
where on  the  shore,  between  tide-marks  into  deep 
water.  Their  stems  are  branching,  and  the  little 
bud-like  things  on  them,  when  watched  in  still  water, 
may  be  seen  to  put  forth  pretty  colored  bodies  with 
tentacles  around  a  centre;  and  as  there  may  be  hun- 
dreds of  them  on  the  branches  and  stem,  the  crea- 
ture resembles  a  bunch  of  rayed  flowers.  Hence  the 
name  Sertularia,  from  sertula,  a  small  garland. 


THE   JELLY-FISH  1381 

These  Sertularians  were  noticed  and  drawn  many 
years  ago,  and  were  called  Corallines.  This  is  a  great 
mistake,  because  the  Coralline  is  a  plant  covered 
with  carbonate  of  lime.  The  correct  name  would  be 
the  Garland  polypes.  When  we  get  a  bunch  of  these 
creatures  from  the  seaside  they  are  dead,  and  the 
hard  and  preservable  outside  parts  alone  are  left,  all 
the  beauty  of  color  and  the  wonderful  inside  struc- 
ture are  gone.  But  even  then  it  can  be  noticed  that 
the  stems  of  the  creature  arise  from  a  network  of 
tubes  fixed  on  to  stones,  sea-weeds,  and  shells.  This 
resembles  a  root,  but  it  does  not  absorb  nourishment 
like  the  root  of  a  plant.  The  stems,  often  not  bigger 
than  hairs,  are  hollow,  and  the  branches  also.  The 
surface  of  the  branches  is  covered  on  one,  or  often  on 
both  sides,  by  minute  cups.  These  give  almost  a  saw- 
edge  look  to  it,  in  some  of  the  creatures;  and  among 
these  cups,  which  are  open  at  their  free  end,  are  some 
larger  ones,  which  are  closed  where  free,  and  often 
ribbed  and  ornamented  on  their  outside.  It  is  no- 
ticed that  the  hollow  of  the  stem  and  branches  is  con- 
tinued into  the  cups,  but  not  into  the  closed  ones,  and 
that  these  are  shut  off  from  it  by  a  very  delicate 
layer  of  tissue.  This  is  the  minute  structure  of  these 
things  when  dead ;  but  when  alive,  the  inside  of  the 
stem  and  branches  is  filled  with  a  soft  substance, 
which  reaches  up  to  the  part  where  each  of  the  cups 
is  attached  to  the  outside.  The  cups,  hundreds  in 
number,  on  each  stem  and  branch,  contain  a  most 
beautiful  flower-like  polype.  Variously  colored,  ac- 
cording to  the  kind,  it  has  a  bell  shape,  and  has  a  spot 
for  the  mouth,  which  leads  to  a  stomach,  whose  floor 


1332  THE   STORY   OF  THE   UNIVERSE 

is  connected  with  the  pith  of  the  whole  branch. 
Around  the  mouth  are  numerous  tentacles  excessively 
irritable,  capable  of  stinging  and  paralyzing  prey; 
and  the  spectacle  of  hosts  of  these,  all  working  for  the 
common  good  of  the  branching  animal,  is  very  beau- 
tiful. Sometimes  there  is  much  red  in  the  color,  at 
other  times  green,  yellow,  or  a  dull  tint;  and  in  or- 
der to  relieve  the  sameness  of  outline  presented  by 
thousands  of  cups,  their  horny  margin  is  spined  or 
toothed.  In  full  vigor  during  the  summer,  and  liv- 
ing through  the  winter  and  probably  for  several 
years,  these  cups  with  their  tentacled  polypes  con- 
tribute to  the  growth  and  nutrition  of  the  whole. 
They  all  work  for  a  common  end,  and  that  is  for  the 
persistence  of  the  life  of  the  colony.  They  live  on 
microscopic  things  in  the  water,  such  as  minute  ova, 
or  the  young  of  things  like  unto  themselves,  and  on 
animalcules,  and  probably  on  the  moving  spores  of 
sea-weeds.  As  the  spring  advances,  the  larger  and 
closed  cups  begin  to  grow  by  budding  from  the  stem, 
and  they  become  filled  with  a  gummy  substance  with 
a  few  granules  in  it,  and  somewhat  resembling  the 
pith  of  the  stem.  As  the  closed  cup  grows,  it  often 
becomes  marked  on  the  outside  with  rings  or  belts, 
and  it  becomes  a  very  prominent  object  on  the  horny- 
looking  Garland  polype.  These  close'd  cups  are  con- 
cerned in  the  reproduction  of  the  creature,  for  after 
a  few  weeks  the  substance  inside  them  is  seen  to 
collect  into  bunches  of  round  or  oval  bodies,  often 
yellow  in  color,  or  of  other  tints.  By  and  by  the  cup 
bursts,  or  a  sort  of  trap-door  opens  at  the  top,  and 
these  things  escape.  They  are  small,  covered  with 


THE   JELLY-FISH  1333 

cilia,  or  moving  hairs,  and  resemble  the  planulas  of 
the  jelly-fish  in  shape,  and  they  swim  freely,  and 
finally  settle  down  on  a  stone  or  weed.  They  become 
environed  by  a  horny  coat,  the  stomach  having  been 
formed  first  by  simple  bending  in  of  the  outside  of 
the  creature,  and  tentacles  grow.  The  planula  thus 
founds  a  new  colony.  But  there  are  other  phases  in 
this  curious  life-story;  for  instead  of  the  little  round 
balls  in  the  closed  cups  getting  free  as  planulas,  some 
in  certain  kinds  grow  there,  and  resemble  excessively 
minute  jelly-fish  stuck  fast  by  the  back,  and  expos- 
ing the  mouth,  feet,  and  the  fringed  umbrella.  These 
Medusae,  as  they  may  be  called,  die  on  the  parent, 
and  never  wander. 

There  is  one  kind  of  these  Garland  polypes  called 
Lafoea  in  which  the  round  bodies  produced  in  the 
closed  cups  burst  forth,  and  not  in  the  shape  of  plan- 
ulas. They  come  forth  like  tiny  bells,  furnished 
with  minute  eye-spots  on  the  edge,  and  they  have  an 
umbrella  shape,  and*  long  tentacles  arising  from  the 
edge  near  the  eye-spots.  They  are  jelly-fish,  to  all 
intents  and  purposes,  and  swim  freely  about,  and  in 
time  produce  planulas  which  develop  into  a  parent 
Garland  polype  again. 

There  is  a  very  interesting  kind  of  these  allies  of 
the  sea-jellies  which,  from  its  feathery  shape,  has 
been  called  Plumularia.  Specimens  are  common, 
and  there  is  a  stem,  and  it  has  branches,  and  the 
cups  are  in  one  row  on  the  branchlets.  Moreover, 
there  are  openings  in  the  horny  envelope  of  the  soft 
pith  of  the  branches,  which  do  not  give  exit  to  a 
polype-looking  thing  with  its  mouth  surrounded  with 


1334  THE   STORY   OF  THE   UNIVERSE 

tentacles,  but  to  a  simple  pith  with  many  threads 
or  stinging  cells  in  it.  It  is  more  or  less  like  a  long 
tongue,  and  is  placed  among  the  cups  with  polypes, 
and  it  is  evidently  an  instrument  for  capturing 
minute  creatures.  The  Sickle-beard  is  one  of  them. 

But  one  of  the  most  singular  of  these  delicate 
creatures  lives  in  very  numerous  colonies,  on  such  an 
unexpected  place  as  the  outside  of  the  shell  tenanted 
within  by  a  wandering  hermit-crab.  It  is  called 
Hydractinia.  The  Hydractinia  has  a  kind  of  crust 
for  its  formation,  with  tubes  in  it,  and  out  from  them 
comes  a  white  film,  which,  under  a  magnifying- 
glass,  presents  a  number  of  stems  and  polypes.  Each 
one  has  at  its  free  part  a  club-shaped  end,  which  has 
several  rows  of  tentacles  around  it.  These,  often 
twenty-five  in  number,  are,  like  the  stem,  very  irri- 
table, flexible,  and  are  covered  with  a  sticky  matter. 
The  club  is  hollow  within,  for  the  stomach,  and  food 
gets  in  by  the  top,  where  the  horny  skin  appears  to 
be  absent. 

The  tentacles  are  rather  sharp,  and  when  they  are 
half-contracted  they  often  appear  to  have  a  knob  at 
the  end,  otherwise  they  are  stuck  out  and  are  like  so 
many  thick  threads.  The  stalk  which  supports  the 
conical-shaped  head  has  a  thin  and  wrinkled  skin 
with  sharp,  dot-like  points  on  it,  and  probably  they 
secrete  a  sticky  substance.  The  polypes  thus  formed 
cluster  together  like  so  much  moss  on  the  shell,  and  it 
would  appear,  if  not  in  the  English  species,  certainly 
in  one  which  frequents  the  American  coasts,  that 
some  groups  are  male  and  others  female.  But  there  is 
no  doubt,  from  the  researches  of  Mr.Moseley,  F.R.S., 


THE  JELLY-FISH  1335 

of  the  Challenger,  that  some  of  the  polypes  act  as 
catchers  of  food,  and  feed  those  which  pay  especial 
attention  to  increasing  and  multiplying.  These  last 
have  minute  little  knobs  growing  on  the  stalk  be- 
neath the  head,  and  which  develop  round  bodies  in- 
side. After  a  while  motion  is  noticed  in  them,  and 
there  is  every  reason  to  believe  that  they  burst  forth 
and  swim  off  as  small  jelly-fish.  Some,  however, 
give  out  little  planulas,  which  settle  down  and  grow 
like  the  parent. 

It  will  have  been  noticed  from  this  description  that 
these  polypes  are  different  in  shape  from  the  Garland 
polypes  and  that  instead  of  being  bell-shaped,  with 
tentacles  around  the  mouth,  they  are  club-shaped, 
and  have  more  than  one  row  of  tentacles  half  way 
down.  This  last  shape  gives  a  characteristic  to  many 
little  polypes  which  lead,  like  the  others,  two  lives — 
one  fixed  on  the  seashore  on  plants  and  stones,  and 
the  other,  freely  swimming,  as  a  pretty  little  jelly- 
fish. 

Another  kind  lives  fixed  on  sea-weeds  in  shallow 
water,  and  its  stem  consists  of  'a  single  tube,  whicH  is 
creeping  and  threadlike.  The  cups  for  the  polype 
are  on  long  stalks,  with  markings  like  rings  on  them, 
and  are  bell-shaped  with  a  toothed  edge.  The  mouth 
is  surrounded  by  tentacles,  as  in  the  Garland  polype, 
and,  in  fact,  there  is  not  much  outside  distinction 
between  them  and  this  Campanularia,  or  Bell 
polype. 

There  is  a  stomach  in  the  polype  bud  which  leads 
to  a  canal  that  goes  down  the  stalk,  and  even  into  the 
creeping  stem  or  root.  The  buds,  on  stalks  of  their 


1336  THE  STORY   OF  THE   UNIVERSE 

own,  are  very  remarkable.  They  contain,  soon  after 
they  are  formed,  numerous  little  jelly-fish  attached  to 
stalks.  There  may  be  twenty  or  thirty  of  these  in 
each  bud,  and  the  day  will  come  when  they  will 
burst  forth,  be  cast  loose  from  their  stems,  and  swim 
off.  They  resemble  hand-bells  of  a  very  flat  kind, 
and  the  mouth  is  prolonged  into  a  four-parted  pro- 
jection, which  protrudes  through  a  structure  not 
seen  in  the  great  jelly-fish,  but  peculiar  to  these 
smaller  ones,  which  fills  up  the  disk  underneath, 
from  the  mouth  to  the  edge,  with  a  layer  of  muscular 
fibres.  They  have  four  long  tentacles,  and  when 
they  have  lived  for  some  time  they  begin  to  play  some 
very  curious  tricks.  Thus  a  foreign, naturalist,  M. 
Van  Beneden,  was  examining  some  creatures  in  his 
aquarium,  and  found  hundreds  of  these  very  small 
jelly-fish,  and  he  caught  some  in  order  to  examine 
them  with  his  microscope.  He  began  to  draw  some 
of  them  carefully  in  order  to  write  a  description  of 
them.  About  an  hour  afterward,  on  again  looking 
at  his  specimen,  he  was  amazed  to  find  its  shape 
changed,  and  the  animal  apparently  turned  inside 
out.  The  tentacles  on  the  edge  seemed  to  be  re- 
versed in  their  position;  the  umbrella-like  dome, 
from  being  convex  was  the  reverse,  and  the  curled 
lip-like  proboscis  seemed  converted  into  the  stem  of 
a  solitary  polype.  One  of  these  Campanularians, 
called  erroneously  the  Wrinkled-thread  Coralline, 
grows  on  sea-weeds  near  low-water  mark,  and  es- 
pecially on  the  great  Riband  Tangle.  It  is  a  small 
thing,  about  an  inch  in  height,  and  its  stem  is  of  a 
pink  or  rose- red  color;  it  is  sparingly  branched  in  a 


FISHES  1337 

zigzag  manner,  and  its  stem  is  ringed.  The  buds  de- 
velop jelly-fish,  but  they  never  escape,  and  hang  on 
by  stalks  for  the  rest  of  their  lives. 

FISHES.— ANDREW  WILSON 

THIS  division  every  one  must  know  as  that  of 
the  Vertebrata,  a  word  which  may  be  used  in 
a  popular  sense,  as  corresponding  to  the  expression 
"backboned"  animals.  At  the  head  of  this  group 
man  and  quadrupeds  are  found,  while  the  fishes  form 
the  lowest  class  in  the  division. 

There  are  few  groups  of  the  animal  world  more 
interesting  to  the  ordinary  observer  than  that  of  the 
fishes.  To  survey  the  various  forms  and  shapes  pre- 
sented by  these  animals  as  displayed  in  a  great 
museum  should  prove  a  sufficient  incentive  to  gain 
a  more  intimate  acquaintance  with  the  class;  and 
when,  even  in  a  popular  sense,  we  investigate  the 
structure  and  habits  of  fishes,  the  study  increases  in 
its  fascination  and  interest.  While  if  we  reflect  that 
on  a  knowledge  of  the  habits  of  fishes,  of  their  dis- 
tribution in  our  oceans  and  seas,  and  of  the  special 
products  which  many  of  them  offer  for  our  use  and 
luxury,  the  commercial  success  of  our  fisheries  de- 
pends, it  can  need  no  further  argument  to  convince 
us  that,  after  all,  there  is  something  of  great  practical 
benefit  to  be  derived  from  the  study  of  zoological 
science. 

It  is  not  our  intention  at  present  to  say  anything 
regarding  the  commercial  or  economic  aspects  of 
fishes,  and  even  their  general  habits  must  be  very 


THE   STORY   OF  THE   UNIVERSE 

briefly  touched  upon.  We  rather  aim  at  giving  some 
account  of  the  structure  of  the  fishes,  and  at  noting 
such  peculiarities  in  their  habits  and  life  as  may 
prove  most  interesting  to  our  readers.  Primarily, 
then,  we  find  that  fishes  may  be  recognized  by  hav- 
ing the  body  usually,  but  not  always,  covered  with 
scales,  of  various  forms  and  kinds.  Then,  secondly, 
we  have  the  limbs  represented  by  certain  fins;  and, 
thirdly,  we  find  almost  all  fishes  to  breathe  by  gills 
during  the  whole  of  life.  These  three  points  are, 
in  the  main,  sufficient  to  distinguish  fishes  from  their 
higher  as  well  as  their  lower  neighbors.  The  scales 
which  cover  the  bodies  of  fishes  present  great  di- 
versities in  shape,  size,  and  appearance.  Some  fishes 
thus  exhibit  an  utter  want  of  scales;  while  others, 
like  knights  of  old,  are  incased  in  a  veritable  suit  of 
scaly  armor.  The  lampreys,  and  their  curious  neigh- 
bors the  hag-fishes,  are  destitute  of  scales;  and  in  our 
familiar  eels,  the  scales  are  very  small  and  insig- 
nificant. Such  fishes,  however,  are  amply  compen- 
sated for  the  want  of  scales  by  the  power  they  pos- 
sess of  throwing  out  from  the  skin  a  vast  quantity  of 
glutinous  or  oily  matter,  technically  named  mucus. 
The  presence  of  this  secretion,  which  has  given  origin 
to  the  phrase  "as  slippery  as  an  eel,"  serves  to  pro- 
tect the  surface  of  the  body,  and  no  doubt  also  assists 
in  the  easy  progress  of  these  fishes  through  the  water. 
So  large  is  the  quantity  of  this  oily  matter  which  the 
hag-fishes  can  emit  from  their  body,  that  one  form 
has  received  the  specific  name  of  glutinosa;  the  fish 
being  able  in  this  way  to  literally  convert  the  water 
of  the  vessel  in  which  it  is  contained  into  a  jelly- 


FISHES  1339 

like  mass.  The  familiar  blennies,  found  in  rock- 
pools  after  the  tide  has  receded,  are  also  able  to  emit 
a  large  amount  of  this  glutinous  fluid. 

Illustrating  the  opposite  extreme  of  the  develop- 
ment of  scales,  we  find  such  fishes  as  the  bony 
pikes  of  North  American  lakes  and  rivers,  the  bodies 
of  which  are  covered  with  an  armor  of  closely  fitting 
and  overlapping  scales  or  plates,  named  ganoid, 
from  their  shining  appearance  (Greek  ganos,  splen- 
dor) .  The  scales  of  this  fish  are  said  to  be  employed 
in  the  manufacture  of  the  little  "mother-of-pearl" 
buttons,  so  commonly  used.  Many  fossil  fishes  were 
also  abundantly  provided  with  these  hard,  bony 
plates;  and  our  living  sturgeons  possess  scales  of 
similar  nature,  although  in  the  latter  fishes  they  do 
not  completely  cover  the  body.  The  bright  silvery 
scales  of  the  herring  and  its  neighbors  are  thin  struc- 
tures, and  are  very  easily  detached  from  the  skin; 
and  a  curious  form  of  scale  is  seen  in  the  perches; 
the  hinder  edge  of  each  scale  in  the  latter  case  being 
cut  into  comb-like  teeth.  In  the  sharks,  skates,  and 
rays,  the  scales  are  small  and  horny,  and  are  often 
provided  with  little  spines.  If  we  draw  our  hand 
along  the  back  of  a  dog-fish  from  tail  to  head,  as 
when  we  stroke  a  cat's  back  the  wrong  way,  we  feel 
numerous  small  projecting  points,  borne  on  the 
scales.  The  rough  skin  surface  thus  produced  is  fre- 
quently used  under  the  name  of  "shagreen"  in  the 
manufacture  of  spectacle-cases  and  like  articles,  and 
is  also  employed  for  polishing  the  surface  of  wood. 

In  their  general  shape  the  bodies  of  fishes  exhibit 
a  great  compression  from  side  to  side,  a  rounding 


1340  THE  STORY  OF  THE   UNIVERSE 

of  the  sides,  and  a  pointing  of  either  extremity, 
adapting  the  animals  for  easy  progression  through 
the  water.  Some  fishes,  such  as  the  soles,  flounders, 
plaice,  etc.,  are  named  "flat  fishes"  from  the  great 
flattening  exhibited  by  their  bodies;  although,  at  the 
same  time,  it  is  important  to  observe  that  these  fishes 
are  simply  more  compressed  from  side  to  side  than 
their  neighbors.  Most  persons,  on  looking  at  a  sole 
or  flounder,  are  apt  to  think  that  one  of  the  flat  sur- 
faces must  represent  the  back,  and  the  other  the 
under  surface  of  the  body.  This  idea  is  strengthened 
by  the  fact  that  the  so-called  back  surface  is  dark, 
and  the  apparent  under  surface  light  in  color,  and 
because  both  eyes  exist  on  the  dark-colored  surface. 
That,  however,  the  flat  surfaces  arc  really  the  sides 
of  the  fish  may  be  seen  by  noting  that  on  each  sur- 
face a  breast-fin  is  developed;  these  fins  being  placed 
invariably  one  on  each  side  of  the  body.  And  while 
the  eyes  in  early  life  are  disposed  one  on  each  side  of 
the  head,  in  the  position  in  which  eyes  are  naturally 
situated,  they  are  gradually  brought  round  to  one 
side  by  the  bones  of  the  head  becoming  curiously 
twisted  in  the  course  of  development.  Thus  these 
fishes  lie  and  swim  on  one  side — that  which  is  light- 
colored — and  present  a  most  singular  combination 
of  curious  and  abnormal  features. 

The  fins  of  fishes  constitute  interesting  features  in 
their  structure.  Almost  all  fishes  have  two  sets  of 
fins — those  which  exist  in  pairs  and  those  which  are 
unpaired,  and  which  are  developed  in  the  middle 
line  of  the  body.  To  the  former  class  belong  the  two 
pectoral  or  "breast-fins"  and  the  two  ventral  or  "belly- 


FISHES  1341 

fins."  The  "breast-fins"  correspond  to  the  forelegs 
of  other  animals  or  to  the  arms  of  man;  while  the 
ventral  fins  correspond  to  the  hindlegs  or  to  man's 
lower  limbs;  and  these  latter  fins  may  be  placed,  as 
hind-limbs  should  be,  to  the  rear  of  the  body  (as  in 
sturgeons)  ;  or  they  may  be  found  (as  in  the  cod) 
placed  beneath  the  breast-fins  on  the  throat. 

It  may  be  asked,  How  do  we  know  that  these  two 
pairs  of  fins  represent  the  limbs  of  other  animals? 
We  reply,  because  when  we  investigate  their  struc- 
ture we  find  them  to  be  supported  by  a  bony  skeleton, 
the  various  portions  of  which  correspond  to  those  ex- 
isting in  the  skeleton  of  the  limbs  of  man  or  other 
vertebrates.  And  it  is  only  through  this  important 
principle  of  tracing  out  what  are  known  as  the  ho- 
mologies  or  resemblances  between  parts,  and  by  look- 
ing at  and  comparing  their  structure,  that  we  are 
enabled  to  find  out  the  real  nature  of  many  organs  in 
animals;  similar  organs  frequently  existing  under 
very  different  and  varied  guises. 

The  other  fins  of  fishes  do  not  exist  in  pairs,  but  are 
placed  in  the  middle  line  of  the  body.  Hence  they 
are  named  the  median  or  unpaired  fins.  Thus  we 
find  the  back  or  dorsal  fins  to  represent  the  unpaired 
fins,  as  also  do  the  tail  and  anal  fins ;  the  latter  being 
placed  on  the  lower  surface  of  the  body.  These  un- 
paired fins,  if  they  correspond  to  any  other  structures 
in  the  fishes,  are  simply  to  be  regarded  as  special 
developments  of  the  skin,  and  therefore  bear  no  true 
relationship  to  the  limbs  of  other  animals.  We  may 
find  one  or  more  dorsal  and  one  or  more  anal  fins; 
but  the  tail-fin,  by  the  action  of  which,  as  every  one 


1342  THE   STORY  OF  THE   UNIVERSE 

knows,  the  fish  chiefly  swims,  is  always  single,  but 
may  be  divided  into  halves.  Most  of  our  common 
fishes  have  the  halves  of  the  tail-fin  of  equal  size; 
others,  such  as  the  sharks,  sturgeons,  etc.,  having  the 
upper  half  greatly  exceeding  the  lower  half  of  the 
tail-fin  in  size.  In  one  species  of  shark,  named 
the  Thresher  or  Fox-shark,  the  upper  half  of  the 
tail-fin  appears  enormously  developed  as  compared 
with  the  lower  half;  and  the  names  of  this  species 
have  been  derived  from  the  use  the  fish  makes  of  its 
tail  in  lashing  the  water,  and  from  the  long-tailed 
appearance  suggesting  a  resemblance  to  the  familiar 
Reynard  of  the  land.  In  fishes  the  tail-fin  is  always 
placed  vertically,  or  in  the  same  line  as  the  body, 
and  moves  from  side  to  side;  while  in  the  whales — 
which  are  not  fishes,  but  Mammalia  or  quadrupeds 
possessing  fish-like  bodies — the  tail-fin  is  placed 
across  the  body.  Some  fishes  may  want  arms  or  legs 
— that  is,  the  pectoral  or  ventral  fins;  the  eels,  for 
example,  possessing  no  ventral  fins.  The  flying- 
fishes,  on  the  contrary,  possess  a  very  large  develop- 
ment of  the  pectoral  or  breast  fins,  and  support  them- 
selves temporarily  in  the  air  by  their  aid. 

Fishes  are  usually  very  well  provided  in  the  matter 
of  teeth.  What  would  be  thought  of  a  quadruped 
which  had  teeth  not  only  in  its  jaws,  but  had  its 
tongue,  its  palate,  the  sides  and  floor  of  its  mouth, 
and  other  parts,  also  bearing  rows  of  these  struc- 
tures? Yet  such  is  the  case  with  many  fishes.  Then, 
also,  where  the  teeth  of  one  set  in  fishes  are  lost,  or 
'destroyed  through  the  natural  wear  and  tear  to  which 
they  are  subjected,  new  teeth  are  developed  to  supply 


FISHES  1343 

the  place  of  the  lost  members.  Any  one  may  gain  a 
good  idea  of  the  formidable  array  of  teeth  in  fishes, 
and  of  the  manner  in  which  one  set  succeeds  another, 
by  inspecting  the  jaws  of  a  shark  in  a  museum.  In 
fishes  the  teeth  are  not  implanted  in  sockets,  but  are 
fastened  by  ligaments  to  the  surface  of  the  bones 
which  bear  them.  Sometimes  one  tooth  only  is  de- 
veloped in  fishes.  This  is  the  case  in  the  curious, 
eel-like  hag-fishes  already  mentioned;  these  fishes 
possessing  but  a  single  large  tooth,  borne  on  the 
palate;  and  by  means  of  this  formidable  weapon, 
which  possesses  saw-like  edges,  they  bore  their  way 
into  the  bodies  of  other  fishes,  and  there  take  up  their 
abode  as  unwelcome  guests.  A  cod  or  large  haddock 
may  sometimes  be  found  with  five  or  six  hags  con- 
tained in  its  interior.  The  parrot-fishes,  or  Scari,  of 
tropical  seas,  are  so  named  from  their  possessing  jaws 
shaped  like  the  beaks  of  those  familiar  birds,  and 
these  jaws  are  rendered  all  the  more  extraordinary 
from  their  being  covered  or  incrusted  by  numerous 
small  teeth,  which  are  as  closely  packed  on  the  jaw 
as  paving-stones  are  in  a  street,  and  which  serve 
these  fishes  as  useful  instruments  when  they  feed 
upon  the  living  parts  of  the  hard  and  limy  coral- 
animals.  In  the  jaws  and  floor  of  the  mouth  of  the 
Port  Jackson  shark,  or  in  the  Eagle  rays,  or  skates, 
the  teeth  may  be  seen  to  be  flat  and  broad.  Such 
teeth  form  a  regular  pavement  arranged  like  a  mo- 
saic pattern,  and  are  admirably  adapted  for  crushing 
whatever  substances  enter  the  mouth. 

Fishes  are  well  provided  in  the  way  of  digestive 
apparatus.     A  throat  or  gullet,  stomach,  intestines, 


1844  THE   STORY   OF  THE   UNIVERSE 

liver,  and  other  glands,  s,erve  for  the  digestion  of  the 
food,  and  a  heart  and  blood-vessels  exist  for  the  cir- 
culation of  the  blood  thus  manufactured  from  the 
food.  The  blood  is  purified  in  the  gills.  Each  gill 
— consisting  in  common  fishes  of  a  supporting 
"arch"  bearing  a  great  number  of  delicate  filaments 
arranged  like  the  teeth  of  a  comb — may  be  viewed 
as  simply  a  network  of  blood-vessels.  The  blood, 
pumped  into  this  network  by  the  heart,  is  purified 
by  the  action  of  the  oxygen  gas  contained  in  the  pure 
water  which  the  fish  is  constantly  taking  into  its  gill- 
chamber  by  its  mouth;  while  the  pure  blood  is  re- 
circulated  through  the  body,  and  the  water  used  in 
breathing  is  got  rid  of  by  being  ejected  behind  the 
"gill-cover"  at  the  neck,  so  as  to  allow  a  fresh  inflow 
to  be  drawn  in  by  the  mouth.  The  gills  of  some 
fishes  may  be  very  differently  constructed  from  those 
of  the  common  members  of  the  class.  Thus  the  lam- 
preys breathe  by  pouch-like  gills  which  open  each 
by  a  separate  aperture.  Seven  gill-apertures  may  be 
seen  on  each  side  of  the  neck  of  the  common  lam- 
prey; and  the  sharks,  skates,  and  their  neighbors  also 
breathe  by  sac-like  gills.  Certain  curious  facts  re- 
garding the  breathing  of  fishes  will  be  afterward 
alluded  to.  Fishes  illustrate  plainly  what  is  meant 
by  aquatic  or  water-breathing.  They  possess  gills 
or  organs,  adapted  for  separating  the  atmospheric  air 
which  is  entangled  or  contained  in  the  water;  land- 
animals  breathing  the  same  air  directly  from  the 
atmosphere. 

That  fishes  are  wary  and  active,  and  possess  senses 
of  acute  nature,  are  facts  well  known  to  all.     The 


FISHES  1345 

lowest  fish,  the  little  clear-bodied  lancelet,  pos- 
sesses no  brain  whatever,  and  no  organ  of  hearing  is 
developed,  while  the  eyes  are  at  the  best  of  very  sim- 
ple and  rudimentary  structure.  In  other  fishes,  again, 
the  brain  and  nervous  system  not  only  acquire  a 
typical  development,  but  the  senses  also  advance  in 
perfection.  The  sense  of  sight  is  of  perfect  kind, 
the  eyes  of  fishes  being  adapted  for  seeing  in  the 
dense  medium  in  which  they  live;  while  the  sense 
of  smell  is  also  developed,  although,  curiously 
enough,  the  nostrils,  in  all  except  two  kinds  of 
fishes — the  hag-fishes  and  the  curious  Lepidosiren  or 
mud-fish — are  pocket-like  in  nature,  and  do  not  open 
backward,  as  in  higher  animals,  into  the  mouth. 
The  sense  of  taste  is  not  exercised  in  a  high  degree 
by  fishes,  and  it  is  interesting  to  observe  that  the  sense 
of  touch  appears  to  reside  especially  in  the  sides  of 
the  body,  on  which  surfaces  a  well-marked  line — the 
"lateral  line" — may  be  observed  in  most  fishes.  This 
lateral  line  is  connected  with  a  series  of  canals  or 
sacs  abundantly  supplied  with  nerves.  The  function 
of  these  organs  is  believed  to  be  that  of  exercising 
the  sense  of  touch;  and  from  the  manner  in  which 
many  fishes  swim  against  objects,  and  bring  the  sides 
of  their  bodies  in  gentle  contact  with  foreign  objects, 
there  would  seem  to  exist  strong  reasons  for  support- 
ing the  above  idea.  That  fishes  "hear"  is  a  well- 
known  fact.  No  outer  ear  is  developed,  but  an  in- 
ternal ear — the  essential  part  of  the  organ  of  hearing 
— is  found  in  all  fishes  except  the  little  lancelet. 

While  the  intelligence  or  instinct  of  fishes  is  not, 
generally  speaking,  of  a  high  order,  there  are  not 


1346  THE   STORY  OF  THE   UNIVERSE 

wanting  instances  to  prove  that  these  animals  may 
exhibit  traits  of  character  sometimes  wanting  in 
higher  groups  of  animals.  Any  one  who  has  kept 
gold-fishes  must  have  noted  that  in  time  they  be- 
come more  and  more  familiar  with  the  hand  that 
feeds  them,  and  the  experience  of  aquarium  keepers 
goes  to  prove  that  some  fishes  may  even  show  signs 
of  recognizing  friends. 

Like  the  human  race,  the  class  of  fishes  evinces 
many  illustrations  of  individuals  and  groups  which 
differ  more  or  less  widely  from  their  more  common- 
place neighbors.  To  some  of  the  more  curious  of 
these  "odd  fishes"  we  may  next  direct  attention. 

A  very  singular  little  group  of  fishes,  for  example, 
is  that  known  to  the  naturalist  by  the  name  Lopho- 
branchii;  this  term  meaning  literally  "tuft-gilled." 
Included  in  this  division  are  two  curious  families, 
of  one  of  which  the  sea-horses  or  Hippocampi  are 
the  representatives;  while  to  the  other  family  be- 
long their  allies,  the  pipe-fishes.  No  more  interest- 
ing forms  than  these  two  groups  can  well  be  selected 
from  the  great  class  of  which  they  are  little-known 
members.  And  the  interest  with  which  they  are  re- 
garded by  zoologists  extends  beyond  the  mere  in- 
vestigation of  their  outside  form  or  appearance; 
since  they  present,  in  many  points  of  their  economy, 
and  habits,  very  marked  deviations  from  what  one 
may  call  the  ordinary  course  of  fish-life. 

Imagine  a  little  body  from  four  to  six  inches  in 
length,  topped  by  a  head  which  in  outline  exactly  re- 
sembles that  of  a  horse,  and  which  tapers  off  below, 
or  rather  behind,  into  a  lithe,  flexible,  and  pointed 


FISHES  1347 

tail,  and  we  may  form  a  rough  idea  of  the  general 
appearance  of  one  of  the  sea-horses.  This  little  body 
we  shall  find  to  be  covered  with  ganoid  plates  or 
scales  of  hard  horny  or  bony  material,  exhibiting 
ridges  and  angles  all  over  its  surface.  Two  large 
brilliant  eyes,  each  of  which  may  be  moved  inde- 
pendently of  the  other,  add  to  the  curious  appearance 
of  the  head ;  while  to  the  body  itself  may  be  attached 
long  streamers  of  sea-weed,  serving  to  conceal  the 
little  beings  as  they  nestle  amid  their  marine  bowers, 
each  looking  like  some  veritable  creation  of  heraldic 
or  mythological  kind. 

The  flexible  tail  which  terminates  the  body  has 
the  important  office  of  mooring  or  attaching  the 
fishes  to  any  fixed  object.  As  we  see  them  in  the  aqua- 
rium, they  are  generally  poised,  as  it  were,  on  the 
tail ;  the  latter  being  coiled  around  a  bit  of  sea-weed, 
while  the  erect  body  and  head  look  warily  through 
the  waters  of  their  miniature  sea.  When  they  de- 
tach themselves,  they  swim  about  in  the  erect  po- 
sition by  means  of  the  two  pectoral  or  breast  fins, 
which  being  placed  close  to  the  sides  of  the  neck, 
project  like  veritable  ears,  and  assist  in  rendering  the 
equine  appearance  of  the  head  of  still  more  realistic 
nature.  These  fins  move  with  a  quick  twittering  mo- 
tion, and  propel  their  possessor  swiftly  through  the 
water;  while  the  back-fin,  placed  toward  the  hinder 
extremity  of  the  body,  also  assists  them  in  swimming. 

Some  curious  points  in  the  internal  structure  of 
the  sea-horses  warrant  a  brief  notice.  As  already 
stated,  the  gills  of  an  ordinary  fish  are  shaped  each 
like  a  comb;  the  teeth  of  the  comb  being  represented 


1348  THE   STORY   OF  THE   UNIVERSE 

by  the  delicate  processes,  each  consisting  in  reality 
of  a  network  of  blood-vessels,  in  which  the  blood  is 
exposed  to  the  oxygen  of  the  water,  and  is  thus  puri- 
fied. In  the  sea-horses,  however,  the  gills  do  not 
present  this  comb-like  appearance,  but  exist  in  the 
form  of  separated  tufts  or  bunches  of  delicate  fila- 
ments, which  spring  from  the  gill-supports  or  arches. 
From  this  peculiarity  the  name  "tuft-gilled,"  already 
alluded  to,  is  derived,  and  the  pipe-fishes  agree  in 
the  structure  of  the  gills  with  the  sea-horses.  Then, 
also,  as  most  readers  are  aware,  the  gills  of  ordinary 
fishes  are  covered  by  a  horny  plate,  appropriately 
named  the  gill-cover,  and  it  is  by  sharply  compressing 
the  gills  with  this  cover  that  the  water  used  in  breath- 
ing is  ejected  from  the  gills,  so  as  to  make  room  for 
a  fresh  supply.  In  the  sea-horses,  however,  the  gill- 
cover  is  not  open  or  free  at  its  under  and  hinder 
edges,  but  is  firmly  attached  all  round  to  the  neigh- 
boring tissues,  and  so  rendered  immovable.  At  one 
point  in  its  circumference,  however,  a  small  aper- 
ture is  left,  through  which  the  breathing-water 
escapes  from  the  gills. 

The  sea-horses  are  found  abundantly  in  the  English 
Channel,  around  the  coasts  of  France  and  Spain,  in 
the  Mediterranean  Sea,  and  in  the  tropical  oceans. 
Several  distinct  species  are  known  to  zoologists,  but 
they  closely  resemble  one  another  in  the  essential 
features  just  noted.  They  are  lively  and  intelligent 
little  creatures,  and  become  familiar  in  time  with 
their  possessors.  Fixed  by  their  tails,  they  may  be 
seen  actively  to  dart  the  head  at  any  passing  object 
adapted  for  food ;  while,  when  they  wish  to  free  their 


FISHES  1349 

bodies  from  the  attached  position,  they  appear  to 
manoeuvre  with  the  chin  and  head  in  order  to  effect 
their  purpose.  Their  food  appears  to  consist  of  small 
crustaceans,  worms,  etc. ;  and  they  are  known  to  be 
especially  fond  of  such  delicate  titbits  as  are  afforded 
by  the  eggs  of  other  fishes. 

Perhaps  the  most  curious  part  of  the  history  of 
the  sea-horses  relates  to  their  care  of  the  young. 
Fishes  generally  take  little  or  no  care  of  their  off- 
spring, and  it  is  therefore  the  more  surprising 
to  encounter  in  these  little  beings  a  singular  ex- 
ample of  parental  fidelity  and  attachment.  Nor, 
as  might  be  expected,  is  it  the  mother-fish  who  is 
charged  with  the  task  of  attending  the  young.  Con- 
trary to  the  general  rule,  the  male  fish  assumes  the 
part  of  nurse,  and  well  and  faithfully  does  he  appear 
to  discharge  his  duties.  At  the  root  of  the  tail  in 
the  male  sea-horse  a  curious  little  pouch  is  seen. 
In  this  pouch  the  eggs  laid  by  the  females — which 
want  the  pouch — are  deposited,  and  are  therein  duly 
hatched.  Nor  does  the  parental  duty  end  here;  for 
after  the  young  are  hatched  and  swim  about  by  them- 
selves, they  seek  refuge  in  trie  pouch  during  the  early 
or  infantile  period  of  their  life  whenever  danger 
threatens  them.  This  procedure  forcibly  reminds 
one  of  the  analogous  habits  of  the  kangaroos  and 
their  young;  but  the  occurrence  is  the  more  remark- 
able in  the  lower  and  presumably  less  intelligent 
fish. 

Some  experiments  made  on  the  sea-horses  seem 
to  demonstrate  the  existence  of  a  more  than  ordi- 
nary degree  of  attachment  to  the  young.  Thus  when 


1850  THE  STORY   OF  THE   UNIVERSE 

a  parent-fish  was  taken  out  of  the  water,  the  young 
escaped  from  the  pouch;  but  on  the  parent  being 
held  over  the  side  of  the  boat,  the  young  at  once 
swam  toward  him,  and  re-entered  the  pouch  without 
hesitation.  Some  authorities  have  not  hesitated  to 
express  an  opinion  that  the  young  are  nourished 
within  the  pouch  by  some  fluid  or  secretion  of  its 
lining  membrane.  But  further  observation  is  cer- 
tainly necessary  before  this  latter  opinion  can  be 
relied  upon. 

The  pipe-fishes  are  very  near  neighbors  of  the 
sea-horses,  and  derive  their  name  from  the  thin 
elongated  shape  of  their  bodies,  together  with  the 
fact  that  the  jaws  are  prolonged  to  form  a  long  pipe- 
like  snout,  at  the  extremity  of  which  the  mouth  opens. 
These  fishes  are  very  lively  in  all  their  movements, 
and  dart  through  the  water  so  quickly  that  in  many 
cases  the  eye  is  unable  to  follow  them.  Like  the 
sea-horses,  the  male  pipe-fishes  protect  and  tend 
their  progeny,  and  exhibit  an  equal  attachment  to 
their  young. 

These  latter  features  are  also  well  exemplified  by 
the  familiar  sticklebacks  of  our  ponds  and  streams. 
The  latter  fishes  actually  build  nests  for  the  recep- 
tion and  care  of  their  eggs,  the  nests  being  made 
chiefly  or  solely  by  the  males;  while  on  the  latter, 
during  the  process  of  hatching  and  in  the  upbringing 
of  the  young,  devolves  the  chief  care  of  protecting 
and  looking  after  the  welfare  of  the  progeny.  These 
instances  of  the  care  and  duties  which  devolve  on 
the  males,  instead  of  on  the  mother-parents,  appear 
to  reverse  the  more  natural  order  which  almost  uni- 


FISHES  1351 

versally  obtains  in  the  case  of  both  lower  and  higher 
animals. 

Of  the  oddities  which  fish-life  presents,  probably 
none  are  more  remarkable  than  the  archer  or 
shooter  fishes  (Toxotes),  which  inhabit  the  seas  of 
Japan  and  of  the  Eastern  Archipelago.  When  kept 
in  confinement,  these  fishes  may  be  seen  to  shoot  drops 
of  water  from  their  elongated  jaws  at  flies  and  other 
insects  which  attract  their  attention.  They  have  been 
observed  to  strike  their  prey  with  unerring  aim  at 
distances  of  three  or  four  feet.  Another  notable 
species  of  shooting-fishes  is  the  Chaetodon.  This 
latter  form  possesses  -a  prominent  beak  or  muzzle, 
consisting  of  the  elongated  jaws;  and  from  this  beak, 
as  from  the  barrel  of  a  rifle,  the  fish  shoots  its  watery 
missiles  at  the  insects  which  alight  on  the  vegetation 
fringing  its  native  waters. 

The  old  saying  which  compares  great  helpless- 
ness to  the  state  of  a  "fish  out  of  water"  does  not 
always  find  a  corroborative  re-echo  in  natural  his- 
tory science.  As  every  one  knows,  different  fishes  ex- 
hibit very  varying  degrees  of  tenacity  to  life  when 
removed  from  their  native  element.  Thus  a  herring 
dies  almost  immediately  on  being  taken  out  of  water; 
while,  on  the  other  hand,  the  slippery  eels  will  bear 
removal  from  their  habitat  for  twenty-four  hours 
or  longer;  and  we  have  known  of  blennies — such  as 
the  shanny  (Blennius  pholis) — surviving  a  long 
journey  by  post  of  some  forty-eight  hours'  duration, 
when  packed  amid  some  damp  sea-weed  in  a  box. 

But  certain  fishes  are  known  not  merely  to  live 
when  taken  out  of  water,  but  actually  of  themselves, 


1352  THE  STORY   OF  THE   UNIVERSE 

and  as  part  of  their  life  and  habits,  to  voluntarily 
leave  the  water  and  disport  themselves  on  land.  Of 
such  abnormal  fishes,  the  most  famous  is  the  climb- 
ing perch  or  Anabas  scandens  of  India,  which  in- 
habits the  Ganges,  and  is  also  found  in  other  Asiatic 
ponds  and  rivers.  These  fishes  may  be  seen  to  leave 
the  water  and  to  make  their  way  overland,  support- 
ing themselves  in  their  jerking  gait  by  means  of  their 
strong  spiny  fins.  They  appear  to  migrate  from  one 
pool  to  another  in  search  of  "pastures  new,"  espe- 
cially in  the  dry  season,  and  when  the  water  of  their 
habitats  becomes  shallow. 

The  Hindu  name  applied  4:o  these  fishes  means 
"climbers  of  trees";  and  although  statements  have 
been  made  both  by  travelers  and  natives  that  the 
climbing  perch  has  been  found  scaling  the  stems  of 
trees,  these  accounts,  we  fear,  must  be  regarded  as  of 
equal  value  with  the  native  belief  that  the  fishes  fall 
in  showers  on  the  land  from  the  skies.  Of  the  power 
of  the  fishes  to  live  for  five  or  six  days  out  of  water, 
however,  no  doubt  can  be  entertained;  and  their 
ability  to  support  life  under  these  unwonted  condi- 
tions is  explained  by  the  fact  that  certain  bones  of 
the  head  are  curiously  contorted  so  as  to  form  a  laby- 
rinth, amid  the  delicate  recesses  of  which  a  supply 
of  water  is  retained,  for  the  purpose  of  keeping  the 
gills  moist. 

Another  group  of  fishes,  also  inhabiting  India, 
and  possessing  powers  of  existing  "out  of  water,"  is 
the  Ophiocephalidae  ("snake-headed")  ;  a  family 
allied  to  the  Mullet  group.  It  would  appear,  from 
some  observations  on  these  fishes,  that  they  are  en- 


FISHES  1353 

abled  not  only  to  live,  like  the  climbing  perch,  out 
of  water,  but  that  they  die  if  kept  below  the  surface 
of  the  water  even  for  a  comparatively  short  time. 
Thus  when  an  Ophiocephalus  and  a  carp  were  placed 
together  in  a  vessel  of  water,  a  net  being  placed 
about  two  inches  from  the  surface,  the  carp  swam, 
as  might  be  expected,  freely  and  continuously  below 
the  surface,  while  the  Ophiocephalus  made  vigorous 
efforts  to  attain  the  surface,  for  the  purpose  of  in- 
haling air  directly  from  the  atmosphere.  When  not 
allowed  to  reach  the  surface,  the  Ophiocephali  died, 
suffocated,  in  periods  varying  from  twenty  minutes 
to  two  hours.  The  explanation  of  the  power  pos- 
sessed by  the  latter  fish",  of  being  able  to  live  out  of 
water,  resides  in  the  fact  that  these  fishes  possess  two 
cavities  in  the  throat,  in  which  blood  is  purified  by 
the  inhalation  of  atmospheric  air.  Thus  the  Ophi- 
ocephalus not  only  can  exist  out  of  water,  but  escape 
from  that  medium  must,  in  fact,  be  viewed  as  an  ab- 
solute necessity  for  the  normal  life  of  the  animal. 
The  climbing  perch  appears  also  to  exhibit  this 
latter  peculiarity  of  requiring  to  escape  periodically 
from  the  water,  for  this  fish,  like  the  Ophiocephalus, 
may  be  actually  drowned,  if  kept  from  obtaining  a 
supply  of  atmospheric  air. 

The  curious  Lepidosirens  or  mud-fishes,  which 
occur  in  the  Gambia  of  Africa  and  the  Amazon  of 
South  America,  exhibit  a  greater  peculiarity  of 
structure,  which  still  more  completely  fits  them  for 
living  out  of  water.  In  the  great  majority  of  fishes, 
a  curious  sac  or  bag  known  as  the  swimming  or  air 
bladder  is  found.  The  use  of  this  structure  in  or- 


1354  THE   STORY   OF  THE   UNIVERSE 

dinary  fishes  is  to  alter  the  specific  gravity  of  the  ani- 
mals; and,  by  the  compression  or  expansion  of  the 
air  or  gases  it  contains,  to  enable  them  to  sink  or  rise 
in  the  water  at  will ;  but  it  would  also  appear  that  in- 
directly it  may  aid  in  the  breathing  of  all  fishes  which 
possess  the  organ.  In  the  mud-fishes,  however,  the 
air-bladder  becomes  divided  externally  into  two 
sacs,  while  internally  each  sac  exhibits  a  cellular 
structure  resembling  that  seen  in  the  lungs  of  higher 
animals,  with  which  structures,  in  fact,  the  swim- 
ming-bladder of  fishes  actually  corresponds.  Then 
also  this  elaborate  air-bladder  of  the  mud-fish  com- 
municates with  the  mouth  and  throat  by  a  tube, 
which  corresponds  to  a  windpipe.  The  nostrils  of 
the  mud-fishes  further  open  backward  into  the 
mouth ;  while,  as  already  mentioned,  in  all  other 
fishes,  save  one  genus,  the  nostrils  are  simple,  closed, 
pocket-like  cavities.  And  it  may  lastly  be  noted  that 
the  Lepidosirens  are  in  addition  provided  with  true 
gills,  like  their  ordinary  and  more  commonplace 
neighbors. 

These  remarks  serve  to  explain  the  "reason  why" 
these  fishes  can  exist  for  months  out  of  water.  Thus, 
on  the  approach  of  the  hot  season,  the  mud-fishes 
leave  their  watery  homes  and  wriggle  into  the  soft 
mud  of  their  native  rivers.  Here  they  burrow  out 
a  kind  of  nest,  coiling  head  and  tail  together;  and 
as  the  mud  dries  and  hardens,  the  fishes  remain  in 
this  temporary  tomb ;  breathing  throughout  the  warm 
season  like  true  land-dwellers,  by  means  of  the  lung- 
like  air-bladder.  When  the  wet  season  once  more  re- 
turns, the  fishes  are  aroused  from  their  semi-torpid 


FISHES  1365 

state  by  the  early  rains  moistening  the  surrounding 
clay;  and  when  the  pools  and  rivers  once  more  at- 
tain their  wonted  depth,  the  Lepidosirens  emerge 
from  their  nests,  seek  the  water,  breathe  by  means  of 
their  gills,  and  otherwise  lead  a  true  aquatic  exist- 
ence. Another  fish,  the  Ceratodus  or  "Barramunda" 
of  Australian  rivers,  possesses  a  similarly  modified 
air-bladder,  and  is  thus  enabled  to  breathe  inde- 
pendently of  its  gills. 

With  such  a  combination  of  the  characters  of  land 
and  water  animals,  it  is  little  to  be  wondered  at  that 
the  true  position  of  the  mud-fishes  and  their  neigh- 
bors in  the  zoological  scale  should  have  formed  a 
subject  for  much  discussion.  They  appear,  how- 
ever, to  be  true  fishes,  and  not  amphibians  (or  frog- 
like  animals)  ;  and  they  therefore  may  legally  oc- 
cupy a  prominent  position  among  the  oddities  of 
their  class. 

Other  curious  beings  included  among  the  fishes 
are  the  so-called  globe-fishes  (Diodon,  etc.),  which 
derive  their  name  from  their  power  of  distending 
their  bodies  with  air  at  will;  and  their  bodies  being 
usually  provided  with  spines,  they  may  be  judged 
to  present  a  rather  formidable  front  to  any  ordinary 
adversary  in  their  expanded  condition.  Then  also 
we  have  the  curious  trigger-fishes  (Balistes),  so 
named  from  the  prominent  pointed  spine  in  front 
of  the  first  back-fin;  this  spine  firmly  holding  its 
erect  position  until  the  second  spine  or  fin-ray  be 
depressed,  when  the  first  spine  is  released  by  mechan- 
ism resembling  that  of  the  trigger  of  a  gun.  The 
obvious  use  of  such  an  apparatus  is  clearly  of  a  de- 


1356  THE   STORY  OF  THE   UNIVERSE 

fensive  kind;  and  it  is  remarkable  to  find  that  man 
has  imitated  and  reproduced,  in  one  of  his  common 
mechanical  contrivances,  a  structure  existing  in  all 
its  natural  perfection  in  the  fish. 

Oddities  in  the  way  of  curious  fishes  can  receive  no 
better  illustration  than  that  afforded  by  the  very 
curious  "telescope-fishes"  of  China.  These  beauti- 
ful little  fishes  are  kept  alive  in  many  of  our  large 
aquaria.  At  first  sight  the  telescope-fishes  might  be 
mistaken  for  the  familiar  gold-fishes,  but  a  cursory 
inspection  of  their  appearance  at  once  shows  the  pe- 
culiarities of  structure  which  have  earned  for  these 
creatures  their  distinctive  name.  The  eyes  are  seen 
to  be  singularly  prominent,  and  protrude  from  the 
head  to  a  marked  extent,  while  they  also  present 
certain  alterations  in  intimate  structure.  The  fins, 
moreover,  are  double,  this  conformation  being  well 
exemplified  in  the  large  and  prominent  tail-fin. 
The  exact  nature  of  these  fishes  has  been  discussed 
by  the  French  Academy  of  Sciences,  in  the  records 
of  which  it  is  stated  that  the  Chinese  have  cultivated 
these  fishes  from  an  ordinary  species  of  the  carp 
race,  and  that  the  peculiar  conformation  of  the  eyes 
results  from  a  diseased  state,  which,  by  being  trans- 
mitted from  one  generation  to  another,  has  become 
at  last  a  stable  and  definite  character  of  the  animals. 
This  very  probable  explanation  of  the  origin  of  these 
peculiar  eyes  is  supported  by  the  fact  that  certain 
carps  inhabiting  the  canal  Saint  Martin  at  Paris  were 
found  to  possess  prominent  eyes ;  and  a  like  appear- 
ance has  been  observed  in  carps  living  in  rivers  into 
which  the  water  of  drains  had  been  allowed  to  flow. 


WONDERS  OF  THE   SHORE  1357 


WONDERS    OF    THE    SHORE 

—CHARLES  KINGSLEY 

SEE,  on  the  shore,  a  shell  bed,  quite  large, 
but  comely  enough  to  please  any  eye.  What 
a  variety  of  colors  and  forms  are  there,  amid  the 
purple  and  olive  wreaths  of  wrack,  and  bladder- 
weed,  and  tangle  (ore-weed  they  call  it  in  the  south), 
and  the  delicate  green  ribbons  of  the  Zostera  (the 
only  English  flowering  plant  which  grows  beneath 
the  sea).  What  are  they  all?  What  are  the  long, 
white  razors?  What  are  the  delicate  green-gray 
cimeters?  What  are  the  tapering  brown  spires? 
What  the  tufts  of  delicate  yellow  plants  like  squir- 
rels' tails  and  lobsters'  horns,  and  tamarisks,  and  fir- 
trees,  and  all  other  finely  cut  animal  and  vegetable 
forms?  What  are  the  groups  of  gray  bladders,  with 
something  like  a  little  bud  at  the  tip?  What  are  the 
hundreds  of  little  pink-striped  pears?  What  those 
tiny  babies'  heads  covered  with  gray  prickles  in- 
stead of  hair?  The  great  red  starfish,  which  the 
Ulster  children  call  "the  bad  man's  hands";  and 
the  great  whelks,  which  the  youth  of  Musselburgh 
know  as  roaring  buckies,  these  we  have  seen  before; 
but  what,  oh  what,  are  the  red  capsicums? 

Yes,  what  are  the  red  capsicums?  and  why  are 
they  poking,  snapping,  starting,  crawling,  tumbling 
wildly  over  each  other,  rattling  about  the  huge  ma- 
hogany cockles,  as  big  as  a  child's  two  fists,  out  of 
which  they  are  protruded?  Mark  them  well,  for 
you  will  perhaps  never  see  them  again. 


1358  THE  STORY   OF  THE   UNIVERSE 

That  red  capsicum  is  the  foot  of  the  animal  con- 
tained in  the  cockle-shell.  By  its  aid  it  crawls,  leaps, 
and  burrows  in  the  sand,  where  it  lies  drinking  in 
the  salt  water  through  one  of  its  siphons  and  dis- 
charging it  again  through  the  other.  Put  the  shell 
into  a  rock  pool,  or  a  basin  of  water,  and  you  will 
see  the  siphons  clearly.  But  I  suppose  your  eyes 
will  be  rather  attracted  by  that  scarlet  and  orange 
foot  which  is  being  drawn  in  and  thrust  out  to  a 
length  of  nearly  four  inches,  striking  with  its  point 
against  any  opposing  object,  and  sending  the  whole 
shell  backward  with  a  jerk.  The  point,  you  see,  is 
sharp  and  tongue-like,  only  flattened,  not  horizon- 
tally, like  a  tongue,  but  perpendicularly,  so  as  to 
form,  as  it  was  intended,  a  perfect  sand-plow,  by 
which  the  animal  can  move  at  will  either  above  or 
below  the  surface  of  the  sand. 

Enough  of  Cardium  tuberculatum.  Now  for  the 
other  animals  of  the  heap;  and  first,  for  those  long, 
white  razors.  They,  as  well  as  the  gray  cimeters, 
are  solens,  razor-fish  (Solen  siliqua  and  S.  ensis), 
burrowers  in  the  sand  by  that  foot  which  protrudes 
from  one  end,  nimble  in  escaping  from  the  Torquay 
boys,  whom  you  will  see  boring  for  them  with  a  long 
iron  screw  on  the  sands  at  low  tide.  They  are  very 
good  to  eat,  these  razor-fish;  at  least  for  those  who 
so  think  them;  and  abound  in  millions  upon  all  our 
sandy  shores. 

Now  for  the  tapering  brown  spires.  They  are 
Turritellae,  snail-like  animals  (though  the  form  of 
the  shell  is  different),  who  crawl  and  browze  by 
thousands  on  the  beds  of  Zostera,  or  grass  wrack, 


WONDERS   OF  THE  SHORE  1359 

which  you  see  thrown  about  on  the  beach,  and  which 
grows  naturally  in  two  or  three  fathoms  of  water. 
Stay:  here  is  one  which  is  "more  than  itself."  On 
its  back  is  mounted  a  cluster  of  barnacles  (Balanus 
Porcatus),  of  the  same  family  as  those  which  stud 
the  tide-rocks  in  millions,  scratching  the  legs  of 
hapless  bathers.  Look  at  the  mouth  of  the  shell;  a 
long  gray  worm  protrudes  from  it,  which  is  not  the 
rightful  inhabitant.  He  is  dead  long  since,  and  his 
place  has  been  occupied  by  one  Sipunculus  Bern- 
hardi,  a  wight  of  low  degree  who  connects  "radiate" 
with  annulate  forms — in  plain  English, sea-cucumbers 
with  sea-worms.  But  however  low  in  the  scale  of 
comparative  anatomy,  he  has  wit  enough  to  take  care 
of  himself;  mean,  ugly,  little  worm  as  he  seems. 
For,  finding  the  mouth  of  the  Turritella  too  big  for 
him,  he  has  plastered  it  up  with  sand  and  mud 
(Heaven  alone  knows  how),  just  as  a  wry-neck 
plasters  up  a  hole  in  an  apple  tree  when  she  intends 
to  build  therein,  and  has  left  only  a  round  hole,  out 
of  which  he  can  poke  his  proboscis.  A  curious  thing 
is  this  proboscis,  when  seen  through  the  magnifier. 
You  perceive  a  ring  of  tentacles  round  the  mouth, 
for  picking  up  I  know  not  what;  and  you  will  per- 
ceive, too,  if  you  watch  it,  that  when  he  draws  it  in, 
he  turns  mouth,  tentacles,  and  all  inward,  and  so 
down  into  his  stomach,  just  as  if  you  were  to  turn 
the  finger  of  a  glove  inward  from  the  tip  till  it 
passed  into  the  hand ;  and  so  performs,  every  time  he 
eats,  the  clown's  as  yet  ideal  feat  of  jumping  down 
his  own  throat. 

So  much  have  we  seen  on  one  little  shell.     But 


1360  THE   STORY   OF  THE   UNIVERSE 

there  is  more  to  see  close  to  it.  Those  yellow  plants 
which  I  likened  to  squirrels'  tails  and  lobsters'  horns, 
and  what  not,  are  zoophytes  of  different  kinds.  Here 
is  Sertularia  argentea  (true  squirrel's  tail)  ;  here  S. 
filicula,  as  delicate  as  tangled  threads  of  glass;  here 
abietina;  here  rosacea.  The  lobsters'  horns  are 
Antennaria  antennina;  and  mingled  with  them  are 
Plumulariae,  always  to  be  distinguished  from  Ser- 
tulariae  by  polypes  growing  on  one  side  of  the  branch, 
and  not  on  both.  Here  is  falcata,  with  its  roots 
twisted  round  a  sea-weed.  Here  is  cristata,  on  the 
same  weed;  and  here  is  a  piece  of  the  beautiful 
myriophyllum,  which  has  been  battered  in  its  long 
journey  out  of  the  deep  water  about  the  ore  rock. 
Here  are  Flustrae,  or  sea-mats.  This,  which  smells 
very  like  Verbena,  is  Flustra  coriacea.  That  scurf 
on  the  frond  of  ore-weed  is  F.  lineata.  The  glass 
bells  twined  about  this  Sertularia  are  Campanularia 
syringa;  and  here  is  a  tiny  plant  of  Cellularia  ciliata. 
Look  at  it  through  the  field-glass;  for  it  is  truly 
wonderful.  Each  polype  cell  is  edged  with  whip- 
like  spines,  and  on  the  back  of  some  of  them  is — 
what  is  it  but  a  live  vulture's  head,  snapping  and 
snapping — what  for? 

Next,  what  are  the  striped  pears?  They  are  sea- 
anemones,  Sagartia  viduata,  the  snake-locked  anem- 
one. They  have  been  washed  off  the  loose  stones 
to  which  they  usually  adhere  by  the  pitiless  roll  of 
the  ground-swell ;  however,  they  are  not  so  far  gone 
but  that  if  you  take  one  of  them  home  and  put  it  in 
a  jar  of  water,  it  will  expand  into  a  delicate  com- 
pound flower,  which  can  neither  be  "described  nor 


WONDERS  OF  THE   SHORE  1361 

painted,  of  long  pellucid  tentacles,  hanging  like  a 
thin,  bluish  cloud  over  a  disk  of  mottled  brown  and 
gray.  Here,  adhering  to  this  large  whelk,  is  an- 
other, but  far  larger  and  coarser.  It  is  Sagartia 
parasitica,  one  of  our  largest  British  species;  and 
most  singular  in  this,  that  it  is  almost  always  (in 
Torbay  at  least)  found  adhering  to  a  whelk:  but 
never  to  a  live  one;  and  for  this  reason.  The  live 
whelk  (as  you  may  see  for  yourself  when  the  tide 
is  out)  burrows  in  the  sand  in  chase  of  hapless 
bivalve  shells,  which  he  bores  through  with  his 
sharp  tongue  (always,  cunning  fellow,  close  to  the 
hinge  where  the  fish  is),  and  then  sucks  out  their 
life.  Now,  if  the  anemone  stuck  to  him,  it  would 
be  carried  under  the  sand  daily,  to  its  own  disgust. 
It  prefers,  therefore,  the  dead  whelk,  inhabited  by 
a  soldier  crab,  Pagurus  Bernhardi,  of  which  you 
may  find  a  dozen  anywhere  as  the  tide  goes  out; 
and  travels  about  at  the  crab's  expense,  sharing  with 
him  the  offal  which  is  his  food.  Note,  moreover, 
that  the  soldier  crab  is  the  most  hasty  and  blundering 
of  marine  animals,  as  active  as  a  monkey,  and  as  sub- 
ject to  panics  as  a  horse;  wherefore  the  poor  anemone 
on  his  back  must  have  a  hard  life  of  it;  being 
knocked  about  against  rocks  and  shells,  without 
warning,  from  morn  to  night  and  night  to  morn. 
Against  which  danger,  kind  Nature,  ever  maximus 
in  minimis,  has  provided  by  fitting  him  with  a  stout 
leather  coat,  which  she  has  given,  I  believe,  to  no 
other  of  his  family. 

Next  for  the  babies'  heads,  covered  with  prickles 
instead  of  hair.    They  are  sea  urchins,  Amphidotus 


1362  THE   STORY   OF  THE    UNIVERSE 

cordatus,  which  burrow  by  thousands  in  the  sand. 
They  are  of  that  Spatangoid  form  which  you  will 
often  find  fossil  in  the  chalk,  and  which  shepherd 
boys  call  snakes'  heads.  We  shall  soon  find  another 
sort,  an  Echinus,  and  have  time  to  talk  over  these 
most  strange  (in  my  eyes)  of  all  living  animals. 

I  must  mention  Synapta;  or,  as  Montague  called 
it,  Chirodota — a  much  better  name,  and,  I  think, 
very  uselessly  changed;  for  Chirodota  expresses  the 
peculiarity  of  the  beast,  which  consists  in — start  not, 
reader — twelve  hands,  like  human  hands,  while 
Synapta  expresses  merely  its  power  of  clinging  to 
the  fingers,  which  it  possesses  in  common  with  many 
other  animals.  It  is,  at  least,  a  beast  worth  talking 
about;  as  for  finding  one,  I  fear  that  we  have  no 
chance  of  such  good  fortune. 

But  what  is  it  like?  Conceive  a  very  fat,  short 
earth-worm;  not  ringed,  though,  like  the  earth- 
worm, but  smooth  and  glossy,  dappled  with  darker 
spots,  especially  on  one  side,  which  may  be  the  upper 
one.  Put  round  its  mouth  twelve  little  arms,  on  each 
a  hand  with  four  ragged  fingers,  and  on  the  back 
of  the  hand  a  stump  of  a  thumb,  and  you  have 
Synapta  Digitata.  These  hands  it  puts  down  to  its 
mouth,  generally  in  alternate  pairs,  but  how  it  ob- 
tains its  food  by  them  is  yet  a  mystery,  for  its  in- 
testines are  filled,  like  an  earth-worm's,  with  the  mud 
in  which  it  lives,  and  from  which  it  probably  ex- 
tracts (as  does  the  earth-worm)  all  organic  matters. 

You  will  find  it  stick  to  your  fingers  by  the  whole 
skin,  causing,  if  your  hand  be  delicate,  a  tingling 
sensation;  and  if  you  will  examine  the  skin  under 


WONDERS   OF  THE   SHORE  1363 

the  microscope,  you  will  find  the  cause.  The  whole 
skin  is  studded  with  minute  glass  anchors,  some  hang- 
ing freely  from  the  surface,  but  most  imbedded  in 
the  skin.  Each  of  these  anchors  is  joined  at  its  root 
into  one  end  of  a  curious  cribriform  plate — in  plain 
English  one  pierced  like  a  sieve,  which  lies  under 
the  skin  and  reminds  one  of  the  similar  plates  in  the 
skin  of  the  White  Cucumaria,  which  I  will  show 
you  presently;  and  both  of  these  we  must  regard  as 
the  first  rudiments  of  an  Echinoderm's  outside  skele- 
ton, such  as  in  the  sea-urchins  covers  the  whole  body 
of  the  animal.  The  animal,  when  caught,  has  a 
strange  habit  of  self-destruction,  contracting  its  skin 
at  two  or  three  different  points,  and  writhing  till  it 
snaps  itself  into  "junks,"  as  the  sailors  would  say, 
and  then  dies. 

Every  ledge  of  these  flat  New  Red  Sandstone  rocks, 
if  torn  up  with  the  crowbar,  discloses  in  its  cracks 
and  crannies  nests  of  strange  forms  which  shun  the 
light  of  day;  beautiful  Actiniae  fill  the  tiny  caverns 
with  living  flowers;  great  Pholades  bore  by  hundreds 
in  the  softer  strata;  and  wherever  a  thin  layer  of 
muddy  sand  intervenes  between  two  slabs,  long 
Annelid  worms  of  quaintest  forms  and  colors  have 
their  horizontal  burrows,  among  those  of  that  curious 
and  rare  radiate  animal,  the  Spoonworm,  an  eye- 
less bag  about  an  inch  long,  half  bluish  gray,  half 
pink,  with  a  strange  scalloped  and  wrinkled  pro- 
boscis of  saffron  color,  which  serves  in  some  mys- 
terious way,  soft  as  it  is,  to  collect  food  and  clear  its 
dark  passage  through  the  rock.  See,  at  the  extreme 
low-water  mark,  where  the  broad  olive  fronds  of 


THE   STORY  OF  THE   UNIVERSE 

the  Laminariae,  like  fan-palms,  droop  and  wave 
gracefully  in  the  retiring  ripples,  a  great  bowlder 
which  will  serve  our  purpose.  Its  upper  side  is  a 
whole  forest  of  sea-weeds,  large  and  small;  and  that 
forest,  if  you  examined  it  closely,  as  full  of  inhabi- 
tants as  those  of  the  Amazon  or  the  Gambia.  To 
"beat"  that  dense  cover  would  be  an  endless  task; 
but  on  the  under  side,  where  no  sea-weeds  grow,  we 
shall  find  full  in  view  enough  to  occupy  us  till  the 
tide  returns. 

Now  the  crowbar  is  well  under  it;  heave,  and  with 
a  will ;  and  so,  after  five  minutes'  tugging,  propping, 
slipping,  and  splashing,  the  bowlder  gradually  tips 
over,  and  we  rush  greedily  upon  the  spoil. 

The  first  object  which  strikes  the  eye  is  probably 
a  group  of  milk-white  slugs,  from  two  to  six  inches 
long,  cuddling  snugly  together.  You  try  to  pull 
them  off,  and  find  that  they  give  you  some  trouble, 
such  a  firm  hold  have  the  delicate  white  sucking 
arms,  which  fringe  each  of  their  five  edges.  You 
see  at  the  head  nothing  but  a  yellow  dimple;  for 
eating  and  breathing  are  suspended  till  the  return 
of  tide;  but  once  settled  in  a  jar  of  salt  water,  each 
will  protrude  a  large  chocolate-colored  head,  tipped 
with  a  ring  of  ten  feathery  gills,  looking  very  much 
like  a  head  of  "curled  kale,"  but  of  the  loveliest 
white  and  primrose;  in  the  centre  whereof  lies 
perdu  a  mouth  with  sturdy  teeth — if,  indeed,  they, 
as  well  as  the  whole  inside  of  the  beast,  have  not 
been  lately  got  rid  of,  and  what  you  see  be  not  a  mere 
bag,  without  intestine  or  other  organ:  but  only  for 
the  time  being.  For  hear  it,  worn-out  epicures  and 


WONDERS   OF  THE   SHORE  1365 

old  Indians  who  bemoan  your  livers,  this  little  Holo- 
thuria  knows  a  secret  which,  if  he  could  tell  it,  you 
would  be  glad  to  buy  of  him  for  thousands  sterling. 
To  him  blue  pill  and  muriatic  acid  are  superfluous 
and  travels  to  Brunnen  a  waste  of  time.  Happy 
Holothuria!  who  possesses  really  the  secret  of  ever- 
lasting youth,  which  ancient  fable  bestowed  on  the 
serpent  and  the  eagle.  For  when  his  teeth  ache,  or 
his  digestive  organs  trouble  him,  all  he  has  to  do  is 
just  to  cast  up  forthwith  his  entire  inside,  and  faisant 
maigre  for  a  month  or  so,  grow  a  fresh  set,  and  then 
eat  away  as  merrily  as  ever.  His  name,  if  you  wish 
to  consult  so  triumphant  a  hygeist,  is  Cucumaria 
Pentactes. 

Now  what  are  those  bright  little  buds,  like  sal- 
mon-colored Banksia  roses  half-expanded,  sitting 
closely  on  the  stone?  Touch  them;  the  soft  part  is 
retracted,  and  the  orange  flower  of  flesh  transformed 
into  a  pale  pink  flower  of  stone.  That  is  the  Madre- 
pore (Caryophyllia  Smithii)  ;  one  of  our  south  coast 
varieties:  and  see,  on  the  lip  of  the  last  one,  which 
we  have  carefully  scooped  off  with  the  chisel,  two 
little  pink  towers  of  stone,  delicately  striated;  drop 
them  into  this  small  bottle  of  sea-water,  and  from  the 
top  of  each  tower  issues  every  half  second — what 
shall  we  call  it? — a  hand  or  a  net  of  finest  hairs, 
clutching  at  something  invisible  to  our  grosser  sense. 

"Doubtless  you  are  familiar  with  the  stony  skele- 
ton of  our  Madrepore,  as  it  appears  in  museums.  It 
consists  of  a  number  of  thin  calcareous  plates  stand- 
ing up  edgewise,  and  arranged  in  a  radiating 
manner  round  a  low  centre.  This  is  but 


1366  THE   STORY   OF   THE   UNIVERSE 

the  skeleton;  and  though  it  is  a  very  pretty  ob- 
ject, those  who  are  acquainted  with  it  alone  can 
form  but  a  very  poor  idea  of  the  beauty  of 
the  living  animal.  .  .  .  Let  it,  after  being  torn 
from  the  rock,  recover  its  equanimity;  then  you 
will  see  a  pellucid  gelatinous  flesh  emerging  from 
between  the  plates,  and  little  exquisitely  formed 
and  colored  tentacula,  with  white  clubbed  tips 
fringing  the  sides  of  the  cup-shaped  cavity  in  the 
centre,  across  which  stretches  the  oval  disk  marked 
with  a  star  of  some  rich  and  brilliant  color,  sur- 
rounding the  central  mouth,  a  slit  with  white  cre- 
nated  lips,  like  the  orifice  of  one  of  those  elegant 
cowry  shells  which  we  put  upon  out  mantel-pieces. 
The  mouth  is  always  more  or  less  prominent,  and  can 
be  protruded  and  expanded  to  an  astonishing  extent. 
The  space  surrounding  the  lips  is  commonly  fawn 
color,  or  rich  chestnut-brown,  the  star  or  vandyked 
circle  rich  red,  pale  vermilion,  and  sometimes  the 
most  brilliant  emerald  green,  as  brilliant  as  the 
gorget  of  a  humming  bird."* 

And  what  does  this  exquisitely  delicate  creature 
do  with  its  pretty  mouth?  Alas  for  fact!  It  sips  no 
honey-dew,  or  fruits  from  paradise.  "I  put  a  minute 
spider,  as  large  as  a  pin's  head,  into  the  water,  push- 
ing it  down  to  the  coral.  The  instant  it  touched  the 
tip  of  a  tentacle  it  adhered,  and  was  drawn  in  with 
the  surrounding  tentacles  between  the  plates.  With 
a  lens  I  saw  the  small  mouth  slowly  open  and  move 
over  to  that  side,  the  lips  gaping  unsymmetrically; 

*  Gosse,  "A  Naturalist's  Rambles  on  the  Devonshire 
Coast." 


WONDERS   OF  THE   SHORE  1367 

while,  with  a  movement  as  imperceptible  as  that  of 
the  hour  hand  of  a  watch,  the  tiny  prey  was  carried 
along  between  the  plates  to  the  corner  of  the  mouth. 
The  mouth,  however,  moved  most,  and  at  length 
reached  the  edges  of  the  plates,  gradually  closed 
upon  the  insect,  and  then  returned  to  its  usual  place 
in  the  centre."  (Gosse.)  The  fact  is,  that  the 
Madrepore,  like  those  glorious  sea-anemones  whose 
living  flowers  stud  every  pool,  is  by  profession  a 
scavenger  and  a  feeder  on  carrion ;  and  being  as 
useful  as  he  is  beautiful,  really  comes  under  the  rule 
which  he  seems  at  first  to  break,  that  handsome  is 
who  handsome  does. 

Look  now  at  these  tiny  saucers  of  the  thinnest  ivo- 
ry, the  largest  not  bigger  than  a  silver  threepence, 
which  contain  in  their  centres  a  milk-white  crust  of 
stone,  pierced,  as  you  see  under  the  magnifier,  into 
a  thousand  cells,  each  with  its  living  architect  within. 
Here  are  two  kinds:  in  one  the  tabular  cells  radiate 
from  the  centre,  giving  it  the  appearance  of  a  tiny 
compound  flower,  daisy  or  groundsel;  in  the  other 
they  are  crossed  with  waving  grooves,  giving  the 
whole  a  peculiar  fretted  look,  even  more  beautiful 
than  that  of  the  former  species.  They  are  Tubuli- 
pora  patina  and  Tubulipora  hispida;  and  stay — 
break  off  that  tiny  rough  red  wart,  and  look  at  its 
cells  also  under  the  magnifier:  it  is  Cellepora  pumi- 
cosa;  and  now,  with  the  Madrepore,  you  hold  in 
your  hand  the  principal,  at  least  the  commonest, 
British  types  of  those  famed  coral  insects  which  in 
the  tropics  are  the  architects  of  continents  and  the 
conquerors  of  the  ocean  surge. 


1368  THE  STORY   OF  THE   UNIVERSE 

There  are  a  few  other  true  cellepore  corals  round 
the  coast.  The  largest  of  all,  Cervicornis,  may  be 
dredged  a  few  miles  outside  on  the  Exmouth  bank, 
with  a  few  more  Tubulipores:  but  all  tiny  things, 
the  lingering  and,  as  it  were,  expiring  remnants  of 
that  great  coral-world  which,  through  the  abysmal 
depths  of  past  ages,  formed  here  in  Britain  our  lime- 
stone hills,  storing  up  for  generations  yet  unborn 
the  materials  of  agriculture  and  architecture.  In- 
expressibly interesting,  even  solemn,  to  those  who 
will  think,  is  the  sight  of  those  puny  parasites  which, 
as  it  were,  connect  the  ages  and  the  eons:  yet  not 
so  solemn  and  full  of  meaning  as  that  tiny  relic  of 
an  older  world,  the  little  pear-shaped  Turbinolia 
(cousin  of  the  Madrepores  and  Sea-anemones), 
found  fossil  in  the  Suffolk  crag,  and  yet  still  linger- 
ing here  and  there  alive  in  the  deep  water  of  Scilly 
and  the  west  coast  of  Ireland,  possessor  of  a  pedi- 
gree which  dates,  perhaps,  from  ages  before  the  day 
in  which  it  was  said:  "Let  us  make  man  in  our 
image,  after  our  likeness." 

But  we  must  make  haste ;  for  the  tide  is  rising  fast, 
and  our  stone  will  be  restored  to  its  eleven  hours' 
bath  long  before  we  have  talked  over  half  the  won- 
ders which  it  holds.  Look,  though,  ere  you  retreat, 
at  one  or  two  more. 

What  is  that  little  brown  thing  whom  you  have 
just  taken  off  the  rock  to  which  he  adhered  so  stoutly 
by  his  sucking-foot?  A  limpet?  Not  at  all:  he  is 
of  quite  a  different  family  and  structure;  but  on  the 
whole,  a  limpet-like  shell  would  suit  him  well 
enough,  so  he  had  one  given  him:  nevertheless,  owing 


WONDERS  OF    THE    SHORE  1369 

to  certain  anatomical  peculiarities,  he  needed  one 
aperture  more  than  a  limpet;  so  one,  if  you  will  ex- 
amine, has  been  given  him  at  the  top  of  his  shell 
(Fissurella  graeca).  This  is  one  instance  among  a 
thousand  of  the  way  in  which  a  scientific  knowledge 
of  objects  must  not  obey,  but  run  counter  to,  the  im- 
pressions of  sense;  and  of  a  custom  in  nature  which 
makes  this  caution  so  necessary,  namely,  the  repeti- 
tion of  the  same  form,  slightly  modified,  in  totally 
different  animals,  sometimes  as  if  to  avoid  waste 
(for  why  should  not  the  same  conception  be  used  in 
two  different  cases,  if  it  will  suit  in  both?)  and 
sometimes  (more  marvelous  by  far)  when  an  organ, 
fully  developed  and  useful  in  one  species,  appears 
in  a  cognate  species  but  feeble,  useless,  and,  as  it 
were,  abortive;  and  gradually,  in  species  still  further 
removed,  dies  out  altogether;  placed  there  it  would 
seem  at  first  sight  merely  to  keep  up  the  family  like- 
ness. I  am  half  jesting;  that  can  not  be  the  only 
reason,  perhaps  not  the  reason  at  all;  but  the  fact 
is  one  of  the  most  curious,  and  notorious  also,  in 
comparative  anatomy. 

Look,  again,  at  those  sea-slugs.  One,  some  three 
inches  long,  of  a  bright  lemon-yellow,  clouded  with 
purple;  another  of  a  dingy  gray  (Doris  tuberculata 
and  bilineata)  ;  another  exquisite  little  creature  of  a 
pearly  French  white,  furred  all  over  the  back  with 
what  seem  arms,  but  are  really  gills,  of  ringed  white 
and  gray  and  black  (Eolis  papilosa).  Put  that  yel- 
low one  into  water,  and  from  his  head,  above  the 
eyes,  arise  two  serrated  horns,  while  from  the  after 
part  of  his  back  springs  a  circular  Prince-of-Wales's- 


1370  THE   STORY   OF  THE   UNIVERSE 

feather  of  gills — they  are  exactly  like  those  which 
we  saw  just  now  in  the  white  Cucumaria.  Yes ;  here 
is  another  instance  of  the  same  custom  of  repetition. 
The  Cucumaria  is  a  low  radiate  animal — the  sea- 
slug  a  far  higher  mollusk;  and  every  organ  within 
him  is  formed  on  a  different  type;  as,  indeed,  are 
those  seemingly  identical  gills,  if  you  come  to  ex- 
amine them  under  the  microscope,  having  to  oxy- 
genate fluids  of  a  very  different  and  complicated 
kind ;  and,  moreover,  the  Cucumaria's  gills  were  put 
round  his  mouth,  the  Doris's  feathers  round  the  other 
extremity;  that  gray  Eolis's  again,  are  simple  clubs, 
scattered  over  his  whole  back,  and  in  each  of  his 
nudibranch  congeners  these  same  gills  take  some 
new  and  fantastic  form;  in  Melibaea  those  clubs  are 
covered  with  warts;  in  Scyllaea,  with  tufted  bou- 
quets; in  the  beautiful  Antiopa  they  are  transparent 
bags;  and  in  many  other  English  species  they  take 
every  conceivable  form  of  leaf,  tree,  flower,  and 
branch,  bedecked  with  every  color  of  the  rainbow, 
as  you  may  see  them  depicted  in  Messrs.  Alder  and 
Hancock's  unrivaled  Monograph  on  the  Nudi- 
branch Molluscs. 

One  sight  more,  and  we  have  done.  I  had  some- 
thing to  say,  had  time  permitted,  on  the  ludicrous 
element  which  appears  here  and  there  in  nature. 
There  are  animals,  like  monkeys  and  crabs,  which 
seem  made  to  be  laughed  at;  by  those  at  least  who 
possess  that  most  indefinable  of  faculties,  the  sense 
of  the  ridiculous.  But,  in  the  meanwhile,  there  are 
animals  in  which  results  so  strange,  fantastic,  even 
seemingly  horrible,  are  produced,  that  fallen  man 


WONDERS  OF  THE  SHORE  1371 

may  be  pardoned  if  he  shrinks  from  them  in  dis- 
gust. At  all  events,  whether  we  were  intruding  or 
not,  in  turning  this  stone,  we  must  pay  a  fine  for  hav- 
ing done  so;  for  there  lies  an  animal  as  foul  and 
monstrous  to  the  eye  as  "hydra,  gorgon,  or  chimaera 
dire,"  and  yet  so  wondrously  fitted  to  its  work  that 
we  must  needs  endure  for  our  own  instruction  to 
handle  and  to  look  at  it.  Its  name,  if  you  wish  for  it, 
is  Nemertes;  probably  N.  Borlasii,  a  worm  of  very 
"low"  organization,  though  well  fitted  enough  for 
its  own  work.  You  see  it?  That  black,  shiny,  knot- 
ted lump  among  the  gravel,  small  enough  to  be  taken 
up  in  a  dessert  spoon.  Look  now,  as  it  is  raised  and 
its  coils  drawn  out.  Three  feet — six — nine,  at  least: 
with  a  capability  of  seemingly  endless  expansion;  a 
slimy  tape  of  living  caoutchouc,  some  eighth  of  an 
inch  in  diameter,  a  dark,  chocolate  black,  with  paler 
longitudinal  lines.  Is  it  alive?  It  hangs,  helpless 
and  motionless,  a  mere  velvet  string  across  the  hand. 
Ask  the  neighboring  Annelids  and  the  fry  of  the 
rock-fishes,  or  put  it  into  a  vase  at  home,  and  see. 
It  lies  motionless,  trailing  itself  among  the  gravel; 
you  can  not  tell  where  it  begins  or  ends;  it  may  be 
a  dead  strip  of  sea-weed,  Himanthalia  lorea,  per- 
haps, or  Chorda  filum,  or  even  a  tarred  string.  So 
thinks  the  little  fish  who  plays  over  and  over  it,  till 
he  touches  at  last  what  is  too  surely  a  head.  In  an 
instant  a  bell-shaped  sucker  mouth  has  fastened  to 
his  side.  In  another  instant,  from  one  lip,  a  con- 
cave double  proboscis,  just  like  a  tapir's  (another 
instance  of  the  repetition  of  forms),  has  clasped 
him  like  a  finger;  and  now  begins  the  struggle:  but 


1372  THE  STORY  OF  THE   UNIVERSE 

in  vain.  He  is  being  "played"  with  such  a  fishing- 
line  as  the  skill  of  a  Wilson  or  a  Stoddart  never 
could  invent;  a  living  line,  with  elasticity  beyond 
that  of  the  most  delicate  fly  rod,  which  follows  every 
lunge,  shortening  and  lengthening,  slipping  and 
twining  round  every  piece  of  gravel  and  stem  of 
sea-weed,  with  a  tiring  drag  such  as  no  Highland 
wrist  or  step  could  ever  bring  to  bear  on  salmon  or 
on  trout.  The  victim  is  tired  now;  and  slowly,  and 
yet  dexterously,  his  blind  assailant  is  feeling  and 
shifting  along  his  side,  till  he  reaches  one  end  of 
him;  and  then  the  black  lips  expand,  and  slowly 
and  surely  the  curved  ringer  begins  packing  him  end 
foremost  into  the  gullet,  where  he  sinks,  inch  by 
inch,  till  the  swelling  which  marks  his  place  is  lost 
among  the  coils,  and  he  is  probably  mascerated  to 
a  pulp  long  before  he  has  reached  the  opposite  ex- 
tremity of  his  cave  of  doom.  Once  safe  down,  the 
black  murderer  slowly  contracts  again  into  a  knot- 
ted heap,  and  lies,  like  a  boa  with  a  stag  inside  him, 
motionless  and  blessed. 

There;  we  must  come  away  now,  for  the  tide  is 
over  our  ankles;  but  touch,  before  you  go,  one  of 
those  little  red  mouths  which  peep  out  of  the  stone. 
A  tiny  jet  of  water  shoots  up  almost  into  your  face. 
The  bivalve  (Saxicava  rugosa),  who  has  burrowed 
into  the  limestone  knot  (the  softest  part  of  the  stone 
to  his  jaws,  though  the  hardest  to  your  chisel),  is 
scandalized  at  having  the  soft  mouths  of  his  siphons 
so  rudely  touched,  and  taking  your  ringer  for  some 
bothering  Annelid,  who  wants  to  nibble  him,  is  de- 
fending himself;  shooting  you,  as  naturalists  do 


WONDERS   OF  THE   SHORE  1373 

humming-birds,  with  water.  Let  him  rest  in  peace; 
it  will  cost  you  ten  minutes'  hard  work  and  much 
dirt  to  extract  him;  but  if  you  are  fond  of  shells, 
secure  one  or  two  of  those  beautiful  pink  and  straw- 
colored  scallops  (Hinnites  pusio)  who  have  gradu- 
ally incorporated  the  layers  of  their  lower  valve 
with  the  roughness  of  the  stone,  destroying  thereby 
the  beautiful  form  which  belongs  to  their  race,  but 
not  their  delicate  color.  There  are  a  few  more 
bivalves,  toof  adhering  to  the  stone,  and  those  rare 
ones,  and  two  or  three  delicate  Mangeliae  and  Nas- 
sae  are  trailing  their  graceful  spires  up  and  down 
in  search  of  food.  That  little  bright  red  and  yel- 
low pea,  too,  touch  it — the  brilliant  colored  cloak 
is  withdrawn,  and,  instead,  you  have  a  beautiful 
ribbed  pink  cowry  (Cypraea  Europsa),  the  only 
European  representative  of  that  grand  tropical 
family.  Cast  one  wondering  glance,  too,  at  the 
forest  of  zoophytes  and  corals,  Lepraliae  and  Flus- 
tra3,  and  those  quaint  blue  stars,  set  in  brown  jelly, 
which  are  no  zoophytes,  but  respectable  mollusks, 
each  with  his  well-formed  mouth  and  intestines 
(Botrylli),  but  combined  in  a  peculiar  form  of  com- 
munism, of  which  all  one  can  say  is  that  one  hopes 
they  like  it. 

From  the  bare  rocks  above  high-water  mark, 
down  to  abysses  deeper  than  ever  plummet  sounded, 
is  life,  everywhere  life;  fauna  after  fauna,  and  flora 
after  flora,  arranged  in  zones,  according  to  the 
amount  of  light  and  warmth  which  each  species  re- 
quires, and  to  the  amount  of  pressure  which  they 
are  able  to  endure.  The  crevices  of  the  highest 


1874  THE  STORY   OF  THE   UNIVERSE 

rocks,  only  sprinkled  with  salt-spray  in  spring-tides 
and  high  gales,  have  their  peculiar  little  univalves, 
their  crisp  lichen-like  sea-weed,  in  myriads;  lower 
down,  the  region  of  the  Fuci  (bladder-weeds)  has 
its  own  tribes  of  periwinkles  and  limpets;  below 
again,  about  the  neap-tide  mark,  the  region  of  the 
Corallines  and  Alga?  furnishes  food  for  yet  other 
species  who  graze  on  its  watery  meadows;  and  be- 
neath all,  only  Uncovered  at  low  spring-tide,  the 
zone  of  the  Laminariae  (the  great  tangles  and  ore- 
weeds)  is  most  full  of  all  of  every  imaginable  form 
of  life. 

CRABS,  PRAWNS,  AND  LOB- 
STERS.—  PHILIP   HENRY    GOSSE 

IF  you  look  at  the  head  of  a  crab,  a  lobster,  or  a 
prawn,  you  will  see  that  it  is  furnished  with 
jointed  antennae,  like  that  of  insects;  but  whereas  in 
insects  there  is  never  more  than  a  single  pair,  in  the 
creatures  of  which  I  am  speaking  there  are  two  pairs. 
In  the  prawn  you  may  suppose,  at  first  sight,  that 
there  are  four  pairs;  but  that  is  because  the  internal 
antennas  terminate  each  in  three  many-jointed  bris- 
tles, in  structure  and  appearance  exactly  like  the 
bristles  of  the  outer  pair,  two  of  the  three  being 
nearly  as  long  as  the  outer,  while  the  third  is  short. 
In  the  lobster,  the  internal  are  two-bristled,  both  bris- 
tles rather  short,  while  the  external  are  very  long. 
In  the  flat-crabs  each  pair  is  simple,  the  inner  mi- 
nute, the  outer  long.  In  the  great  eatable  crab  each 
pair  is  very  small,  and  they  are  dissimilar. 


Two  Strange  Zoophytes 


rpenteri,  a  species  of  glass  sponge;  2,  Penti 
survivor  of  the  Crinoid  family 


inus  Asteria^  the  only 


CRABS,  PRAWNS,  AND   LOBSTERS  1375 

Now  taking  the  last-named  animal  as  the  repre- 
sentative of  his  class,  let  us  examine  one  of  his  inner 
antennae  first.  It  consists  of  a  jointed  stem  and  a  ter- 
minating bristle ;  the  latter  furnished  with  small  hairs 
common  to  the  general  surface  of  the  body,  and 
with  long,  delicate,  membraneous  filaments  (seta), 
often  improperly  called  cilia,  which  are  larger  and 
much  more  delicate  in  structure  than  the  ordinary 
hairs. 

The  basal  joint  is  greatly  enlarged:  if  it  be  care- 
fully removed  from  its  connection  with  the  head,  and 
broken  open,  it  will  be  found  to  inclose  in  its  cavity, 
a  still  smaller  chamber,  with  calcareous  walls  of  a 
much  more  delicate  character  than  the  outer  walls. 
This  internal  shell  is  considered  by  Mr.  Spence  Bate 
to  be  a  cochlea,  from  its  analogy,  both  in  structure 
and  supposed  use,  to  the  organ  so  named  in  the  in- 
ternal ear  of  man  and  other  vertebrate  animals.  It 
is  situated,  as  has  been  said,  in  the  cavity  of  the  basal 
joint  of  the  internal  antennae,  and  is  attached  to  the 
interior  surface  of  its  wall  furthest  from  the  median 
line  of  the  crab.  It  has  a  tendency  to  a  spiral  form, 
but  does  not  pass  beyond  the  limits  of  a  single  con- 
volution. 

If  this  interior  cell  does  indeed  represent  the 
cochlea  of  more  highly  constructed  ears — to  which 
it  bears  some  resemblance,  both  in  form  and  struc- 
ture— then  it  seems  to  identify,  beyond  dispute,  these 
inner  or  upper  antennae  as  the  organs  of  hearing. 

Now  with  this  conclusion  agrees  well  the  man- 
ner in  which  the  living  animal  makes  use  of  the 
organs  in  question.  The  crab  always  carries  them 


1376  THE  STORY  OF  THE   UNIVERSE 

erect  and  elevated;  and  is  incessantly  striking  the 
water  with  them,  with  a  very  peculiar  jerking  ac- 
tion, now  and  then  vibrating,  and,  as  it  has  been 
called,  "twiddling"  them.  These  antennae,  there- 
fore, appear  to  be  always  on  the  watch:  let  the  ani- 
mal be  at  rest,  let  it  be  feeding,  no  matter,  the  supe- 
rior antennae  are  ever  elevated  and  on  constant 
guard. 

The  lengthened  and  delicate  setae  with  which  they 
are  furnished  are,  moreover,  peculiarly  adapted  to 
receive  and  convey  the  most  minute  vibratory  sensa- 
tions from  the  medium  in  which  they  are  suspended ; 
and,  on  the  whole,  it  seems  to  be  satisfactorily  settled 
by  Mr.  Spence  Bate  (to  whose  excellent  memoir  I 
am  indebted  for  these  explanatory  details)  that  the 
inner  antennae  are  real  ears. 

Having  thus  taken  our  crab  by  the  ears,  we  will 
endeavor  next  to  tweak  his  nose.  But  stay,  we  must 
find  it  first.  We  turn  our  horny  gentleman  up,  and 
in  his  flat  ancient  face  we  certainly  discern  little  sign 
of  a  nasal  organ.  Our  friend  Mr.  Bate  must  assist 
us  again.  He  will  tell  us  to  look  at  the  outer  or  lower 
antennae.  We  will  look  accordingly,  magnifier  in 
hand,  while  he  makes  it  clear  to  us  that  these  are  a 
pair  of  noses. 

Each  of  these  organs  is  formed  of  a  stem  consisting 
in  general  of  five  joints,  and  a  filament  of  many  mi- 
nute joints.  In  the  prawn  and  the  lobster  all  the 
five  joints  of  the  stem  are  distinct;  but  in  the  crab  the 
whole  are,  as  it  were,  soldered  together  into  a  com- 
pact mass,  with  difficulty  distinguishable  into  their 
constituent  articulations;  while  in  some  species  their 


CRABS,  PRAWNS,  AND   LOBSTERS  1377 

position  can  be  indicated  only  by  the  presence  of  the 
olfactory  operculum. 

This  important  little  organ  varies  in  its  construc- 
tion in  the  different  families  of  Crustacea.  In  the 
crab  it  is  a  small  movable  appendage,  situated  at  the 
point  of  junction  between  the  second  and  third  joints ; 
it  is  attached  to  a  long,  calcareous,  lever-like  tendon, 
at  the  extreme  limit  of  which  is  placed  a  set  of 
muscles,  by  which  it  is  opened  and  closed ;  to  assist 
in  which  operation,  at  the  angle  of  the  operculum 
most  distant  from  the  central  line  of  the  animal  are 
fixed  two  small  hinges.  When  the  operculum  is 
raised,  the  internal  surface  is  found  to  be  perforated 
by  a  circular  opening  protected  by  a  thin  membrane. 

In  the  prawn,  shrimp,  and  lobster,  there  is  no  oper- 
culum, but  only  the  orifice  covered  by  a  membrane, 
which  is  placed  at  the  extremity  of  a  small  protu- 
berance, and  it  is  not  capable  of  being  withdrawn 
into  the  cavity  of  the  antennae,  as  in  the  crab. 

In  the  latter  animal,  the  little  door,  when  it  is 
raised,  exposes  the  orifice  in  a  direction  pointing  to 
the  mouth ;  and  where  there  is  no  door,  still  the  di- 
rection of  the  opening  is  the  same,  inward  and  for- 
ward, answering  to  the  position  of  the  nostrils  in  the 
higher  animals.  In  each  case  it  is  so  situated  that  it 
is  impossible  for  any  food  to  be  conveyed  into  the 
mouth  without  passing  under  this  organ;  and  there 
most  conveniently  the  animal  is  enabled  to  judge  of 
the  suitability  of  any  substance  for  food,  by  raising 
the  little  door,  and  applying  to  the  matter  to  be  tested 
the  sensitive  membrane  of  the  internal  orifice. 

Thus  it  is  concluded  that  this  lower  or  outer  pair 


1378  THE  STORY   OF  THE   UNIVERSE 

of  antennae  are  the  proper  organs  of  smell,  as  the 
upper  and  inner  are  of  hearing. 

The  eyes,  though  constructed  on  the  same  general 
principles  as  those  of  insects,  yet  present  some  par- 
ticulars worthy  of  your  notice.  In  the  crabs  and 
lobsters  they  consist  of  numerous  facets,  behind  each 
of  which  is  a  conical  or  prismatic  lens,  the  round  ex- 
tremity of  which  is  fitte'd  into  a  transparent  conical 
pit,  corresponding  to  a  vitreous  body,  while  the  coni- 
cal extremity  of  these  lenses  is  received  into  a  kind 
of  cup,  formed  by  the  filaments  of  the  optic  nerve. 
Each  of  these  filaments,  together  with  its  cup,  is 
surrounded  by  pigment  matter  in  a  sheath-like  man- 
ner. To  see  this  structure  would  require  anatomical 
skill ;  but  you  may  here  examine  with  a  low  power 
portions  of  the  cornea,  or  glassy  exterior,  of  the  eye 
of  a  crab  and  of  a  lobster.  In  the  former,  you  see 
that  the  facets  into  which  the  cornea  is  divided  are 
hexagonal,  like  those  of  most  insects,  but  in  the  latter 
they  are  square. 

But  Crustacea  have  a  far  greater  faculty  of  cir- 
cumspection than  insects  have;  for  besides  the  ex- 
tensive convexity  and  numerous  facets  of  their  eyes, 
these  organs  are  placed  at  the  extremity  of  shelly 
foot-stalks,  which  are  themselves  movable  on  hinges, 
capable  of  being  projected  at  pleasure,  of  being 
moved  in  different  directions,  and  of  being  packed 
snugly  away,  when  not  in  active  use,  in  certain 
grooves  hollowed  out  expressly  for  them  in  the  front 
margin  of  the  shell. 


REPTILES  1379 


REPTILES.— PETER  MARK  ROGET 

THE  order  of  Batrachia,  or  Amphibious  Rep- 
tiles, constitutes  the  first  step  in  the  transition 
from  aquatic  to  terrestrial  vertebrata.  It  is  more 
particularly  the  function  of  respiration  that  requires 
to  be  modified,  in  consequence  of  the  change  of  ele- 
ment in  which  the  animal  is  to  reside;  and  as  if  it 
had  been  necessary,  conformably  to  the  laws  of  ani- 
mal creation,  that  this  change  should  not  be  abruptly 
made,  we  find  that  Batrachian  reptiles,  with  which 
this  series  commences,  are  constructed,  at  first,  on 
the  model  of  fishes;  breathing  the  atmospheric  air 
contained  in  the  water  by  means  of  gills,  and  moving 
through  the  fluid  by  the  same  instruments  of  pro- 
gression as  fishes,which,  indeed,  they  exactly  resemble 
in  every  part  of  their  mechanical  conformation.  The 
tadpole,  which  is  the  young  of  the  frog,  is,  at  first, 
not  distinguishable  in  any  circumstance  of  its  in- 
ternal skeleton,  or  in  the  disposition  of  its  vital  organs, 
from  the  class  of  fishes.  The  head,  indeed,  is  en- 
larged, but  the  body  immediately  tapers  to  form  a 
lengthened  tail,  by  the  prolongation  of  the  spinal 
column,  which  presents  a  numerous  series  of  coccy- 
geal  vertebrae,  furnished  with  a  vertical  expansion 
of  membrane  to  serve  as  a  caudal  fin,  and  with  ap- 
propriate muscles  for  executing  all  the  motions  re- 
quired in  swimming. 

Yet,  with  all  this  apparent  conformity  to  the  struc- 
ture of  a  strictly  aquatic  animal,  the  tadpole  contains 
within  its  organization  the  germs  of  a  higher  de- 


1380  THE  STORY   OF  THE   UNIVERSE 

velopment.  Preparations  are  silently  making  for  a 
change  of  habitation,  for  the  animal's  emerging 
from  the  waters,  for  the  reception  of  atmospheric 
air  into  new  cavities,  for  the  acquisition  of  limbs 
suited  to  new  modes  of  progression;  in  a  word,  for 
a  terrestrial  life,  and  for  all  the  attributes  and  powers 
which  belong  to  quadrupeds.  The  succession  of 
forms,  which  these  metamorphoses  present,  are  in 
themselves  exceedingly  curious,  and  bear  a  remark- 
able analogy  with  the  progress  of  the  transforma- 
tions of  those  insects,  which  in  the  first  stages  of 
their  existence  are  aquatic.  To  this  philosophic  in- 
quirer into  the  marvelous  plans  of  creation,  the  series 
of  changes  which  mark  these  singular  transitions 
can  not  fail  to  be  deeply  interesting;  and  occurring, 
as  we  here  find  them,  among  a  tribe  of  animals  allied 
to  the  more  perfect  forms  of  organization,  they 
afford  us  a  better  opportunity  of  exploring  the  secrets 
of  their  development  by  tracing  them  from  the 
earlier  stages  of  this  complicated  process,  so  full  of 
mystery  and  of  wonder. 

The  egg  of  the  frog  is  a  round  mass  of  transparent 
nutritive  jelly,  in  the  centre  of  which  appears  a 
small  black  globule.  By  degrees  this  shapeless 
globule  exhibits  the  appearance  of  a  head  and  tail, 
and  in  this  form  it  emerges  from  its  prison,  and 
moves  briskly  in  the  water.  From  the  sides  of  the 
neck  there  grow  out  feathery  tufts,  which  float 
loosely,  and  without  protection,  in  the  surrounding 
fluid.  These,  however,  are  mere  temporary  organs, 
for  they  serve  the  purposes  of  respiration  only  until 
the  proper  gills  are  formed,  and  they  then  shrink  and 


REPTILES  1381 

become  obliterated.  The  true  gills,  or  branchia, 
are  contained  within  the  body,  and  are  four  in  num- 
ber on  each  side,  constructed  on  a  plan  very  similar 
to  those  of  fishes.  Retaining  this  aquatic  constitution, 
the  tadpole  rapidly  increases  in  size  and  in  activity 
for  several  weeks.  In  the  meantime  the  legs,  of 
which  no  trace  was  at  first  apparent,  have  com- 
menced their  growth.  The  hindlegs  are  the  first  to 
make  their  appearance,  showing  their  embryo  forms 
within  the  transparent  coverings  of  the  hinder  part 
of  the  trunk,  just  at  the  origin  of  the  tail.  These  are 
soon  succeeded  by  the  forelegs,  which  exactly  follow 
the  hindlegs  in  all  the  stages  of  their  development, 
until  they  have  acquired  their  due  proportion  to  the 
size  of  the  trunk.  The  animal  at  this  period  wears  a 
very  ambiguous  appearance,  partaking  of  the  forms 
both  of  the  frog  and  of  the  lizard,  and  swimming 
both  by  the  inflexions  of  the  tail  and  the  irregular 
impulses  given  by  the  feet.  This  interval  is  also  em- 
ployed by  this  amphibious  being  in  acquiring  the 
faculty  of  respiring  atmospheric  air.  We  observe  it 
rising  every  now  and  then  to  the  surface,  and  cul- 
tivating its  acquaintance  with  that  element,  into 
which  it  is  soon  to  be  raised;  occasionally  taking  in 
a  mouthful  of  air,  which  is  received  into  its  newly 
developed  lungs,  and  afterward  discharging  it  in 
the  form  of  a  small  bubble.  When  the  necessary  in- 
ternal changes  are  at  length  completed,  preparations 
are  made  for  getting  rid  of  the  tail,  which  is  now  a 
useless  member,  and  which,  ceasing  to  be  nourished, 
diminishes  by  degrees,  leaving  only  a  short  stump, 
which  is  soon  removed.  The  gills  are  by  this  time 


1382  THE   STORY   OF  THE   UNIVERSE 

shrunk,  and  rapidly  disappear,  their  function  being 
superseded  by  the  lungs,  which  have  been  called  into 
play;  and  the  animal  now  emerges  from  the  water 
and  begins  a  new  mode  of  existence,  having  become 
a  perfect  frog.  It  still,  however,  retains  its  aquatic 
habits,  and  swims  with  great  ease  in  the  water  by 
means  of  its  hindfeet,  which  are  very  long  and  mus- 
cular, and  of  which  the  toes  are  furnished  with  a 
broad  web,  derived  from  a  thin  extension  of  the  in- 
teguments. 

No  less  curious  are  the  changes  which  take  place  in 
all  the  other  organs  for  the  purpose  of  effecting  the 
transformations  rendered  necessary  by  this  entire 
alteration  in  all  the  external  circumstances  of  that 
animal — this  total  reversal  of  its  wants,  of  its  habits, 
of  its  functions,  and  of  its  very  constitution. 

There  are  five  toes  in  the  foot,  with  sometimes  the 
rudiment  of  a  sixth:  the  anterior  extremity  has  only 
four  toes,  which  are  without  claws. 

The  necessity  of  employing  the  same  instruments 
for  progression  in  the  water  and  on  land  is  probably 
the  cause  which  prevents  their  having  the  form  best 
adapted  for  either  function.  The  hindfeet  of  the 
frog,  being  well  constructed  for  striking  the  water 
backward  in  swimming,  are,  in  consequence,  less 
capable  of  exerting  a  force  sufficient  to  raise  and  sup- 
port the  weight  of  the  body  in  walking:  and  this 
animal  accordingly  is  exceedingly  awkward  in  its 
attempt  to  walk.  On  a  short  level  plane  it  can  pro- 
ceed only  by  leaps;  an  action  which  the  length  and 
great  muscularity  of  the  hindlegs  particularly  fit 
them  for  performing.  The  toad,  on  the  other  hand, 


REPTILES  1383 

whose  hindlegs  are  short  and  feeble,  walks  better, 
but  does  not  jump  or  swim  so  well  as  the  frog.*  The 
Hyla,  or  tree-frog,  has  the  extremities  of  each  of  its 
toes  expanded  into  a  fleshy  tubercle,  approaching  in 
the  form  of  its  concave  surface  to  that  of  a  sucker, 
and  by  the  aid  of  which  it  fastens  itself  readily  to  the 
branches  of  trees,  which  it  chiefly  inhabits,  and  along 
which  it  runs  with  great  agility. 

The  salamander  is  an  animal  of  the  same  class  as 
the  frog,  undergoing  the  same  metamorphoses  from 
the  tadpole  state.  It  differs  much,  however,  in  re- 
spect to  the  development  of  particular  parts  of  the 
skeleton.  The  anterior  extremities  of  the  salamander 
make  their  appearance  earlier  than  the  hindlegs, 
and  the  tail  remains  as  a  permanent  part  of  the  struc- 
ture. The  land  salamanders  have  a  rounded  tail,  but 
the  aquatic  species,  or  Tritons,  have  it  compressed 
vertically;  thus  retaining  the  fish-like  form  of  the 
tadpole,  and  the  same  radiated  disposition  of  the 
muscles. 

In  the  class  of  serpents  we  see  exemplified  the 
greatest  possible  state  of  simplicity  to  which  a  verte- 

*  It  is  singular  that  the  frog,  though  so  low  in  the  scale  of 
vertebrated  animals,  should  bear  a  striking  resemblance  to  the 
human  conformation  in  its  organs  of  progressive  motion.  This 
arises  from  the  exertions  which  it  makes  in  swimming  being 
similar  to  those  of  man  in  walking,  in  as  far  as  they  both  result 
from  the  strong  action  of  the  extensors  of  the  feet.  Hence,  we 
find  a  distinct  calf  in  the  legs  of  both,  produced  by  the  swell- 
ing of  similar  muscles.  The  muscles  of  the  thigh  present,  also, 
many  analogies  with  those  of  man ;  particularly  in  the  presence 
of  the  long  muscle  called  the  sartorins,  the  use  of  which  is  to 
turn  the  foot  outward,  both  in  stepping  and  in  swimming. 


1384  THE   STORY   OF  THE   UNIVERSE 

brated  skeleton  can  be  reduced ;  for  it  consists  merely 
of  a  lengthened  spinal  column,  with  a  head  but  little 
develpped,  and  a  series  of  ribs;  but  apparently  desti- 
tute of  limbs,  and  of  the  bones  which  usually  connect 
those  limbs  with  the  trunk.  In  the  conformation  of 
the  skull  and  bones  of  the  face,  they  present  strong 
analogies  with  Batrachian  reptiles,  and  also  with 
fishes,  one  tribe  of  which,  namely,  the  apodous 
or  anguilliform  fishes,  they  greatly  resemble  by  the 
length  and  flexibility  of  the  spine.  These  peculiari- 
ties of  conformation  may  be  in  a  great  measure  traced 
to  the  mode  of  life  for  which  they  are  destined.  The 
food  assigned  to  them  is  living  prey,  which  they  must 
attack  and  vanquish  before  they  can  convert  it  into 
nourishment.  The  usual  mode  in  which  the  boa 
seizes  and  destroys  its  victims  is  by  coiling  the  hinder 
part  of  its  body  round  the  trunk  or  branch  of  a  tree, 
keeping  the  head  and  anterior  half  of  the  body  dis- 
engaged; and  then,  by  a  sudden  spring,  fasten  upon 
the  defenceless  object  of  its  attack,  and  twining  round 
its  body  so  as  to  compress  its  chest  and  put  a  stop  to 
its  respiration.  Venomous  serpents,  on  the  other 
hand,  coil  themselves  into  the  smallest  possible 
space,  and  suddenly  darting  upon  the  unsuspecting 
or  fascinated  straggler,  inflict  the  quickly  fatal 
wound.* 

It  is  evident,  from  these  considerations,  that,  in  the 
absence  of  all  external  instruments  of  prehension 

*  Their  prey  is  swallowed  entire ;  and  therefore,  as  we  shall 
afterward  find,  the  bones  of  the  jaws  and  face  are  formed  to 
admit  of  great  expansion,  and  of  great  freedom  of  motion  upon 
one  another. 


REPTILES  1386 

and  of  progressive  motion,  it  is  necessary  that  the 
spine  should  be  rendered  extremely  flexible,  so  as  to 
adapt  itself  to  a  great  variety  of  movements.  This 
extraordinary  flexibility  is  given,  first,  by  the  sub- 
division of  the  spinal  column  into  a  great  number 
of  small  pieces;  secondly,  by  the  great  freedom  of 
their  articulations;  and  thirdly,  by  the  peculiar  mo- 
bility and  connections  of  the  ribs. 

Numerous  as  are  the  vertebrae  of  the  eel,  the  spine 
of  which  consists  of  above  a  hundred,  that  of  serpents 
is  in  general  formed  of  a  still  greater  number.  In 
the  rattle-snake  (Crotalus  horridus)  there  are  about 
two  hundred;  and  above  three  hundred  have  been 
counted  in  the  spine  of  the  Coluber  natrix.  These 
vertebra?  are  all  united  by  ball  and  socket  joints,  as 
in  the  adult  batrachia;  the  posterior  rounded  emi- 
nence of  each  vertebra  being  received  into  the  an- 
terior surface  of  the  next. 

While  provision  has  thus  been  made  for  extent 
of  motion,  extraordinary  care  has  at  the  same  time 
been  bestowed  upon  the  security  of  the  joints.  Thus, 
we  find  them  effectually  protected  from  dislocation 
by  the  locking  in,  above  and  below,  of  the  articular 
processes,  and  by  the  close  investment  of  the  capsular 
ligaments.  The  direction  of  the  surfaces  of  these 
processes,  and  the  shape  and  length  of  the  spinous 
prosesses,  are  such  as  to  allow  of  free  lateral  flex- 
ion, but  to  limit  the  vertical  and  longitudinal  mo- 
tions: and  whatever  degree  of  freedom  of  motion 
may  exist  between  the  adjoining  vertebrae,  that 
motion  being  multiplied  along  the  column,  the 
flexibility  of  the  whole  becomes  very  great,  and 


1386  THE  STORY  OF  THE   UNIVERSE 

admits  of  its  assuming  every  degree  and  variety  of 
curvature. 

The  mode  in  which  the  boa  exerts  a  powerful  pres- 
sure on  the  bodies  of  the  animals  it  has  seized,  and 
which  it  has  encircled  within  its  folds,  required  the 
ribs  to  be  movable  laterally,  as  well  as  backward,  in 
order  to  elude  the  force  thus  exerted.  The  broad 
convex  surfaces  on  which  they  play  give  them,  in 
this  respect,  an  advantage  which  the  ordinary  mode 
of  articulation  would  not  have  afforded.  The  spinous 
processes  in  this  tribe  of  serpents  are  short  and  widely 
separated,  so  as  to  allow  of  flexion  in  every  direction. 
In  the  rattlesnake,  on  the  other  hand,  their  length 
and  oblique  position  are  such  as  to  limit  the  upward 
bending  of  the  spinal  column,  although,  in  other  re- 
spects, its  motion  is  not  restricted.  The  vertebrae  at 
the  end  of  the  tail  are  furnished  with  broad  trans- 
verse processes  for  the  attachment  of  the  first  joints  of 
the  rattle. 

But  of  whatever  variety  of  flexions  we  may  sup- 
pose the  lengthened  body  of  a  serpent  to  be  capable, 
it  will,  at  first  view,  be  difficult  to  conceive  how  these 
simple  actions  can  be  rendered  subservient  to  the 
purposes  of  progression  on  land :  and  yet  experience 
teaches  us  that  few  animals  advance  with  more  celer- 
ity on  the  surface  of  the  ground,  or  dart  upon  their 
prey  with  greater  promptitude  and  precision.  They 
raise  themselves  without  difficulty  to  the  tops  of  the 
highest  trees,  and  escape  to  their  hiding-places  with 
a  quickness  which  eludes  observation  and  baffles  the 
efforts  of  their  pursuers. 

The  solution  of  this  enigma  is  to  be  sought  for 


REPTILES  1387 

partly  in  the  structure  of  the  skin,  which,  in  almost 
every  species,  is  covered  with  numerous  scales:  and 
partly  in  the  peculiar  conformation  of  the  ribs.  The 
edges  of  the  scales  form  rough  projections,  which  are 
directed  backward,  so  as  to  catch  the  surfaces  of  the 
bodies  to  which  they  are  applied,  and  to  prevent  any 
retrograde  motion.  In  some  species,  the  integument 
is  formed  into  annular  plates,  reminding  us  of  the 
structures  so  prevalent  among  worms  and  myriapode 
animals.  Each  scale  is  connected  with  a  particular 
set  of  muscular  fibres,  capable  of  raising  or  depress- 
ing it,  so  that,  in  this  way,  it  is  converted  into  a  kind 
of  toe;  and  thus  the  body  rests  upon  the  ground  by 
numerous  fixed  points  of  support. 

This  support  is  further  strengthened  by  the  con- 
nection of  the  ribs  with  the  abdominal  scuta,  or  the 
scales  on  the  under  side  of  the  body.  The  mode  in 
which  the  ribs  become  auxiliary  instruments  of  pro- 
gressive motion  was  first  noticed  by  Sir  Joseph  Banks. 
While  he  was  watching  the  movements  of  a  Coluber 
of  unusual  size  which  was  exhibited  in  London,  and 
was  moving  briskly  along  the  carpet,  he  thought  he 
saw  the  ribs  come  forward  in  succession,  like  the  feet 
of  a  caterpillar.  Sir  Everard  Home,  to  whom  Sir 
Joseph  Banks  pointed  out  this  circumstance,  verified 
the  fact  by  applying  his  hand  below  the  serpent,  and 
he  then  distinctly  felt  the  ends  of  the  ribs  moving 
upon  the  palm,  as  the  animal  passed  over  it.  The 
mode  in  which  the  ribs  are  articulated  with  the 
spine  is  peculiar,  and  has  evidently  been  employed 
with  reference  to  this  particular  function  of  the  ribs, 
which  here  stand  in  place  of  the  anterior  and  poste- 


1388  THE   STORY   OF  THE   UNIVERSE 

rior  extremities,  possessed  by  most  vertebrated  ani- 
mals, and  characterizing  the  type  of  their  osseous 
fabric.  In  the  ordinary  structure,  the  head  of  each 
rib  has  a  convex  surface,  that  plays  either  on  the 
body  of  a  single  vertebra  with  which  it  is  connected, 
or  upon  the  two  bodies  of  adjacent  vertebrae:  but  in 
serpents  the  extremity  of  the  head  of  the  rib  has  two 
slightly  concave  articular  surfaces,  which  play  on  a 
convex  protuberance  of  the  vertebra.  This  struc- 
ture is  attended  with  the  advantage  of  preventing  the 
ribs  from  interfering  with  the  motions  of  the  ver- 
tebra? upon  one  another.  At  their  lower  ends  the 
ribs  of  one  side  have  no  connection  with  those  of  the 
other,  nor  are  they  joined  to  any  bone  analogous  to 
a  sternum:  for,  except  in  the  Ophiosaurus  and  the 
blind-worm  (Anguis  fragilis),  there  is  no  vestige 
either  of  a  sternum  or  scapula,  in  any  animal  of  this 
class.  Each  rib  terminates  in  a  slender  cartilage, 
tapering  to  a  point,  which  rests,  for  its  whole  length, 
upon  the  upper  surface  of  one  of  the  scuta,  or  broad 
scales  on  the  lower  side  of  the  body.  These  scuta, 
which  are  thus  connected  with  the  ends  of  the  ribs, 
and  which  are  moved  by  means  of  short  muscles,  may 
be  compared  to  hoofs,  while  the  ribs  themselves  may 
be  considered  as  performing  the  office  of  legs.  The 
ribs  move  in  pairs;  and  the  scutum  under  each  pair, 
being  carried  along  with  it  in  all  its  motions,  and 
laying  hold  of  the  ground  by  its  projecting  edge, 
becomes  a  fixed  point  for  the  advance  of  the  body. 
This  motion,  Sir  E.  Home  observes,  is  beautifully 
seen  when  a  snake  is  climbing  over  an  angle  to  get 
upon  a  flat  surface.  When  the  animal  is  moving  on 


REPTILES  1389 

a  plane,  it  alters  its  shape  from  a  circular  or  oval 
form,  to  one  that  approaches  to  a  triangle,  of  which 
the  surface  applied  to  the  ground  forms  the  base. 
Five  sets  of  muscles  are  provided  for  the  purpose 
of  giving  to  the  ribs  the  motions  backward  and  for- 
ward, by  which,  as  levers,  they  effect  this  species  of 
progression.  These  muscles  are  disposed  in  regular 
layers;  some  passing  over  one  or  two  ribs  to  be  at- 
tached to  the  succeeding  rib.  In  all  snakes  the  ribs 
are  continued  backward  much  beyond  the  region  oc- 
cupied by  the  lungs;  and  although  the  anterior  set 
are  subservient  to  respiration,  as  well  as  to  progres- 
sive motion,  it  is  evident  that  all  those  posterior  to 
the  lungs  must  be  employed  solely  for  the  latter  of 
these  purposes. 

It  is  easy  to  understand  how  the  serpent  can  slowly 
advance,  by  this  creeping,  or  vermicular  motion,  con- 
sisting in  reality  of  a  succession  of  very  short  steps. 
But  its  progress  is  accelerated  by  the  curvatures  into 
which  it  throws  its  body;  the  fore  part  being  fixed, 
and  the  hind  part  brought  near  to  it;  then,  by  a 
reverse  process,  the  hind  part  is  fixed,  and  the  head 
projected  forward.  By  an  alternation  of  these  move- 
ments, assisted  by  the  actions  of  the  ribs,  the  serpent 
is  enabled  to  glide  onward  with  considerable  rapid- 
ity, and  without  attracting  observation.  But  where 
greater  expedition  is  necessary,  they  employ  a  more 
hurried  kind  of  pace,  although  one  which  exposes 
them  more  to  immediate  view.  The  body,  instead 
of  being  bent  from  side  to  side,  is  raised  in  one  great 
arch,  of  which  the  two  extremities  alone  touch  the 
ground;  and  these  being  alternately  employed  as 


1390  THE  STORY  OF  THE   UNIVERSE 

points  of  support,  are  made  successively  to  approach 
and  to  separate  from  each  other,  the  body  being  pro- 
pelled by  bringing  it  from  a  curved  to  a  straight 
line. 

There  is  yet  a  third  kind  of  motion,  which  serpents 
occasionally  resort  to,  when  springing  upon  their 
prey,  or  when  desirous  of  making  a  sudden  escape 
from  danger.  They  coil  themselves  into  a  spiral,  by 
contracting  all  the  muscles  on  one  side  of  the  body, 
and  then,  suddenly  throwing  into  violent  action  all 
the  muscles  on  the  opposite  side,  the  whole  body  is 
propelled,  as  if  by  the  release  and  unwinding  of  a 
powerful  spring,  with  an  impulse  which  raises  it  to 
some  height  from  the  ground,  and  projects  it  to  a 
considerable  distance. 

Thus  these  animals,  to  which  nature  has  denied  all 
external  members,  are  yet  capable,  by  the  substitu- 
tion of  a  different  kind  of  mechanism,  still  con- 
structed from  the  elements  belonging  to  the  primi- 
tive type  of  vertebrated  animals,  of  silently  gliding 
along  the  surface  of  the  earth,  of  creeping  up  trees, 
of  striding  rapidly  across  the  plain,  and  of  executing 
leaps  with  a  vigor  and  agility  which  astonish  the  be- 
holder, and  which,  in  ages  of  ignorance  and  super- 
stition, were  easily  ascribed  to  supernatural  agency. 

The  conformation  of  those  parts  of  the  frame 
which  are  subservient  to  progressive  motion  becomes 
more  perfect  in  the  class  of  Saurian  reptiles,  which 
includes  all  the  lizard  tribes.  Several  links  of  con- 
nection with  the  preceding  class  may  still  be  noticed, 
marking  the  progress  of  development,  as  we  follow 
the  ascending  series  of  animals.  Rudiments  of  the 


REPTILES  1391 

bones  of  the  extremities,  and,  also,  of  the  sternum, 
make  their  appearance  very  visibly  in  the  Ophiosau- 
rus,  and  in  the  blind-worm  (Anguis  fragilis).  The 
Siren  lacertina  has  two  diminutive  forefeet,  placed 
close  to  the  head.  The  Lacerta  lumbricoides  of  Lin- 
naeus, or  the  Bipes  canaliculatus  of  Lacepede,  which 
is  found  in  Mexico,  and  of  which  a  specimen  is  pre- 
served in  the  collection  at  Paris,  has  a  pair  of  very 
short  feet,  also  placed  near  the  head,  and  divided 
into  four  toes,  with  the  rudiment  of  a  fifth.  The  La- 
certa bipes  (Linn.),  or  Sheltopusic  of  Pallas,  has,  on 
the  other  hand,  a  pair  of  hindfeet  only,  but  ex- 
tremely small,  together  with  rudiments  of  a  scapula 
and  clavicle  concealed  under  the  skin.  Next  in  order 
must  be  placed  the  Chalcides,  or  snake-lizard,  and 
the  Lacerta  seps,  animals  frequently  met  with  in  the 
south  of  France,  and  which  have  four  minute  feet, 
totally  inefficient  for  the  support  of  the  body,  and 
only  remotely  useful  in  contributing  to  its  progres- 
sive undulations. 

Ascending  from  these,  we  may  form  a  series  of 
reptiles,  in  which  the  development  of  the  limbs 
becomes  more  and  more  extended,  till  we  arrive  at' 
crocodiles,  in  which  they  attain  a  considerable  de- 
gree of  perfection.  As  a  consequence  of  this  greater 
development  of  the  skeleton,  we  find  the  trunk  divisi- 
ble into  separate  regions.  We  now,  for  the  first  time, 
meet  with  a  distinct  neck,  separating  the  head  from 
the  thorax,  which  is  itself  distinguishable  from  the 
abdomen ;  and  a  distinct  sacrum  is  interposed  be- 
tween the  lumbar  and  the  caudal  vertebrae. 

The  number  of  ribs  differs  in  different  species  of 


1392  THE   STORY   OF  THE   UNIVERSE 

Sauria:  they  are  always  articulated  to  the  extrem- 
ities of  the  transverse  processes  of  the  vertebrae,  of 
which  they  appear  to  be  continuations.  Processes 
of  this  description  also  occur  in  the  neck,  attached 
to  the  transverse  processes  of  the  cervical  vertebrae; 
and  these  have  been  regarded  as  cervical  ribs.  Their 
presence  are  impediments  to  the  flexions  of  the  neck; 
whence  arises  the  difficulty  which  the  crocodile  ap- 
pears to  have  in  bending  the  neck,  while  turning 
round  upon  the  animal  he  is  pursuing.  In  the 
thorax,  the  ribs  are  connected  with  a  broad  sternum; 
but  there  are  other  ribs,  both  before  and  behind, 
which  have  no  such  termination,  and  therefore  bear 
the  name  of  false  ribs. 

The  toes  are  usually  provided  with  membranes 
spread  between  them,  to  assist  in  swimming.  The 
form  of  the  tail,  which  is  generally  compressed  ver- 
tically, like  that  of  fishes,  though  perhaps  not  to  an 
equal  degree,  is  another  indication  of  their  being 
formed  for  an  aquatic  life:  for  where  the  tail  has  this 
shape,  we  always  find  that  the  chief  muscular  power 
is  bestowed  upon  it  as  an  instrument  of  aquatic 
progression,  producing,  by  its  lateral  flexions,  a  hori- 
zontal movement  of  the  body.  Crocodiles  and  alli- 
gators, for  instance,  which  have  this  conformation, 
are  comparatively  weak  when  on  land,  and  as  soon 
as  they  have  seized  their  prey  their  efforts  are  al- 
ways directed  to  drag  it  with  them  into  the  water; 
knowing  that  when  in  their  own  element  they  can 
readily  master  its  struggles,  and  dispose  of  it  as  they 
please. 

In  the  Gecko  tribe  we  find  a  particular  mechanism 


REPTILES  1393 

provided  for  effecting  the  adhesion  of  the  feet  to 
the  objects  to  which  they  are  applied.  It  is  somewhat 
analogous  to  that  employed  in  the  case  of  the  house- 
fly, already  mentioned.  Each  foot  has  five  toes; 
all,  except  the  thumb,  terminated  by  a  sharp  curved 
claw.  On  the  under  surface  of  each  toe  there  are 
as  many  as  sixteen  transverse  slits,  leading  to  the 
same  number  of  cavities,  or  sacs;  these  open  forward, 
and  their  external  edge  is  serrated,  appearing  like 
the  teeth  of  a  small-toothed  comb.  All  these  parts, 
together  with  the  cavities,  are  covered  or  lined  with 
cuticle.  Below  them  are  large  muscles  which  draw 
down  the  claw;  and  from  the  tendons  of  these  mus- 
cles arise  two  sets  of  smaller  muscles,  situated  so 
as  to  be  put  upon  the  stretch,  when  the  former  are  in 
action.  By  the  contractions  of  these  muscles  the 
orifices  of  the  cavities,  or  sacs  to  which  they  belong, 
are  opened,  and  the  serrated  edges  applied  accurately 
to  the  surfaces  with  which  the  feet  are  in  contact. 
Sir  Everard  Home,  in  his  account  of  this  structure, 
compares  it  to  the  sucking  disk  of  the  Remora.  By 
its  means  the  animal  is  enabled  to  walk  securely  upon 
the  smoothest  surfaces,  even  in  opposition  to  the 
tendency  of  gravity.  It  can  run  very  quickly  along 
the  walls  or  ceiling  of  a  building,  in  situations  where 
it  can  not  be  supported  by  the  feet,  but  must  depend 
altogether  upon  the  suspension  derived  from  a  suc- 
cession of  rapid  and  momentary  adhesions. 

Although  the  Sauria  are  better  formed  for  pro- 
gressive motion  than  any  of  the  other  orders  of  rep- 
tiles, yet  the  greater  shortness  and  oblique  position 
of  their  limbs,  compared  with  those  of  mammiferous 


1394  THE   STCi.Y   OF  THE   UNIVERSE 

quadrupeds,  obliges  them  in  general  to  rest  the 
weight  of  the  trunk  of  the  body  on  the  ground,  when 
they  are  not  actually  moving.  None  of  these  reptiles 
has  any  other  kind  of  pace  than  that  of  walking 
or  jumping;  being  incapable  of  performing  either  a 
trot  or  a  gallop,  in  consequence  of  the  obliquity  of 
the  plane  in  which  their  limbs  move.  The  chameleon 
walks  with  great  slowness  and  apparent  difficulty; 
and  we  have  seen  that,  in  consequence  of  the  struc- 
ture of  the  bones  of  its  neck,  the  crocodile,  though' 
capable  of  swift  motion  in  a  straight  line,  is  unable 
to  turn  itself  round  quickly.  The  general  type  of 
these  reptiles,  having  reference  to  an  amphibious 
life,  has  not  attained  that  exclusive  adaptation  to  a 
terrestrial  existence  which  we  find  in  the  higher 
orders  of  the  Mammalia. 

The  order  of  Chelonian  Reptiles,  which  comprises 
all  the  tribes  of  tortoises  and  turtles,  appears  to 
constitute  an  exception  to  the  general  laws  of  con- 
formation which  prevail  among  vertebrated  ani- 
mals: for  instead  of  presenting  a  skeleton  wholly 
internal,  the  trunk  of  the  body  is  found  to  be  in- 
closed on  every  side  in  a  bony  case,  which  leaves 
openings  only  for  the  head,  the  tail,  and  the  fore 
and  hind  extremities.  That  portion  of  this  osseous 
expansion  which  covers  the  back  is  termed  the  Cara- 
pace; and  the  flat  plate  which  defends  the  lower 
part  of  the  body  is  termed  the  Plastron.  It  is  a  form 
of  structure  that  reminds  us  of  the  defence  provided 
for  animals  very  low  in  the  scale  of  organization, 
such  as  the  echinus,  the  Crustacea,  and  the  bivalve 
mollusca.  Yet  the  substance  which  forms  these 


REPTILES  1395 

strong  bucklers,  both  above  and  below,  is  a  real 
osseous  structure,  developed  in  the  same  manner  as 
other  bones,  subject  to  all  the  changes  and  having 
all  the  properties  of  these  structures.  The  great  pur- 
pose which  Nature  seems  to  have  had  in  view  in  the 
formation  of  the  Chelonia  is  security;  and  for  the 
attainment  of  this  object  she  has  constructed  a  vaulted 
and  impenetrable  roof,  capable  of  resisting  enormous 
pressures  from  without,  and  proof  against  any  ordi- 
nary measures  of  assault.  It  is  to  the  animal  a  strong 
castle,  into  which  he  can  retire  on  the  least  alarm, 
and  defy  the  efforts  of  his  enemies  to  dislodge  or 
annoy  him. 

These  considerations  supply  us  with  a  key  to  many 
of  those  apparent  anomalies  which  can  not  fail  to 
strike  us  in  viewing  the  dispositions  of  the  parts  of 
the  skeleton  and  the  remarkable  inversion  they  ap- 
pear to  have  undergone,  when  compared  with  the 
usual  arrangement.  We  find,  however,  on  a  more 
attentive  examination,  that  all  the  bones  composing 
the  skeleton  in  other  vertebrated  animals  exist  also 
in  the  tortoise;  and  that  the  bony  case  which  en- 
velops all  the  other  parts  is  really  formed  by  an  ex- 
tension of  the  spinous  processes  of  the  vertebrae  and 
ribs  on  the  one  side  and  of  the  usual  pieces  which 
compose  the  sternum  on  the  other.  The  upper  and 
lower  plates  thus  formed  are  united  at  their  edges 
by  expansions  of  the  sternocostal  appendices,  which 
become  ossified.  Thus,  no  new  element  has  been 
created;  but  advantage  has  been  taken  of  those  al- 
ready existing  in  the  general  type  of  the  vertebrata, 
to  modify  their  forms  by  giving  them  different  de- 


1396  THE  STORY  OF  THE   UNIVERSE 

grees  of  relative  development,  and  converting  them, 
by  these  transformations,  into  a  mechanism  of  a  very 
different  kind,  and  subservient  to  other  objects  than 
those  to  which  they  are  usually  applied.  It  is 
scarcely  possible  to  have  stronger  proofs,  if  such 
were  wanting,  of  the  unity  of  plan  which  has  regu- 
lated the  formation  of  all  animal  structures  than 
those  afforded  by  the  skeleton  of  the  tortoise. 

The  first  step  taken  to  secure  the  relative  immo- 
bility of  the  trunk  is  to  unite  in  one  rigid,  bony 
column  all  its  vertebrae,  and  to  allow  of  motion  only 
in  those  of  the  neck  and  of  the  tail.  The  former, 
accordingly,  are  all  anchylosed  together,  leaving,  in- 
deed, traces  of  their  original  forms  as  separate  verte- 
brae, but  exhibiting  no  sutures  at  the  place  of  junc- 
tion. The  canal  for  the  spinal  marrow  is  preserved, 
as  usual,  above  the  bodies  of  these  coalesced  verte- 
brae, and  is  formed  by  their  united  leaves;  the  arches 
being  completed  by  the  spinous  processes.  But  these 
processes  do  not  terminate  in  a  crest  as  usual;  they 
are  further  expanded  in  a  lateral  direction,  forming 
flat  pieces  along  the  back,  which  are  united  to  one 
another  by  sutures,  and  which  are  also  joined  to  the 
expanded  ribs,  so  as  to  form  the  continuous  plane 
surface  of  the  carapace.  The  transverse  processes  of 
the  vertebrae  are  well  marked,  but,  though  firmly 
united  to  the  ribs,  do  not  give  rise  to  them;  for  the 
ribs,  which  are  flattened  and  expanded,  so  as  to  touch 
one  another  along  their  whole  length,  are  inserted 
below,  between  the  bodies  of  every  two  adjoining 
vertebrae ;  while  above  they  are  united  by  suture  with 
the  plates  of  the  spinous  processes.  This  change  in 


REPTILES  1897 

the  situation  of  the  ribs  is  the  consequence  of  the 
change  in  their  office.  When  designed  to  be  very 
movable,  we  find  them  attached  either  to  the  ex- 
tremities of  the  transverse  processes  or  to  the  articu- 
lar surfaces  of  a  single  vertebra;  but  where  solidity 
and  security  are  aimed  at,  they  are  always  inserted 
between  the  bodies  of  two  vertebrae.  It  is  remark- 
able, indeed,  that  a  great  number  of  the  peculiarities 
which  distinguish  the  conformation  of  the  chelonia 
from  that  of  other  reptiles  indicate  an  approach  to 
the  structure  of  birds;  as  if  Nature  had  intended  this 
mall  group  of  animals  to  be  an  intermediate  link 
of  gradation  to  that  new  and  important  type  of  ani- 
mals destined  for  a  very  different  mode  of  existence. 
It  is  to  be  noticed,  also,  that  as  the  plates,  which 
form  this  investing  case,  are  bony  structures,  they 
could  not  with  any  safety  have  been  exposed  to  the 
action  cxf  the  atmosphere^  Hence  we  find  them 
covered  throughout  with  a  thin,  horny  plate,  origi- 
nally a  production  of  the  integument.  This  substance 
is  commonly  known  by  the  name  of  tortoise  shell. 

The  immobility  of  the  trunk  is  compensated,  as 
far  as  regards  the  safety  of  the  head,  by  the  great 
flexibility  of  the  neck;  which  is  composed  of  seven 
vertebrae,  unencumbered  by  processes,  and  capable 
of  taking  a  double  curvature  like  the  letter  S,  when 
the  head  is  to  be  retracted  within  the  carapace.  These 
vertebrae  are  joined  by  the  ball  and  socket  articula- 
tion common  to  all  the  existing  species  of  reptiles.* 

*  The  expression  of  this  fact  is  thus  qualified,  because  it 
does  not  apply  to  many  fossil  or  extinct  species,  such  as  the 
Ichthyosaurus. 


1398  -THE   STORY  OF  THE   UNIVERSE 

The  articulation  of  the  head  with  the  neck  is  effected 
in  the  same  manner;  but  it  is  interesting  to  remark 
that  the  occipital  condyle,  which  is  situated  at  the 
lower  margin  of  the  great  aperture,  though  pre- 
senting a  single  convex  surface,  yet  has  that  surface 
evidently  divided  into  three  parts;  the  two  upper 
portions  being  lateral  and  the  lower  portion  in  the 
middle. 

The  singular  conformation  of  the  bones  of  the 
head,  in  the  turtle,  affords  fresh  evidence  in  support 
of  the  theory  that  these  bones  were  originally  verte- 
brae. The  brain  of  the  tortoise  is  exceedingly  small; 
and  yet  the  skull,  when  viewed  from  above,  presents 
an  appearance  of  great  breadth,  as  if  it  inclosed  a 
cavity  of  large  dimensions.  This  great  breadth  of 
the  head  in  the  turtle  gives  the  animal  an  aspect  of 
superior  intelligence,  to  which  character,  from  the 
really  diminutive  size  of  its  brain,  it  is  in  no  re- 
spect entitled.  As  the  turtle  is  unable  to  withdraw 
its  head  within  the  carapace,  such  extraordinary  pro- 
tection appears  to  have  been  necessary:  for  it  is  not 
met  with  in  the  tortoise,  which  has  a  carapace  suf- 
ficiently capacious  to  give  shelter  to  the  head  when- 
ever occasion  may  require. 

All  the  feet  are  joined  obliquely  to  the  limbs  which 
support  them,  giving  the  animal  an  apparent  awk- 
wardness of  gait,  as  if  it  were  obliged  to  walk  upon 
club  feet.  The  impulse  which  they  give  being 
lateral  and  oblique,  renders  them  more  efficacious 
for  progression  in  the  water  than  on  land:  this  cir- 
cumstance, in  conjunction  with  the  constitutional 
torpor  of  the  animal,  sufficiently  accounts  for  the 


REPTILES  1399 

excessive  and,  indeed,  proverbial  tardiness  of  its 
movements. 

Security  appears  still  to  be  the  object  aimed  at  in 
the  mechanism  of  all  other  parts  of  the  skeleton. 
After  the  head  has  been  drawn  in  by  the  double  or 
serpentine  flexion  of  the  neck,  the  knees  are  brought 
together  and  the  whole  limb  withdrawn  within  the 
shell,  the  forelegs  folding  completely  over  the  head, 
so  as  to  cover  and  protect  it  most  effectually. 

Considerable  differences  may  be  noticed  in  the 
structure  of  the  several  species  of  Chelonia,  accord- 
ing to  the  diversity  of  their  habits.  Tortoises  which 
live  on  land  require  more  complete  protection 
by  means  of  their  shell  than  turtles,  or  Emydes, 
which  dwell  only  in  the  water:  hence  the  convexity 
of  their  carapace,  the  solidity  of  its  ossification,  its 
immovable  connection  with  the  plastron,  and  the 
complete  shelter  it  affords  to  the  head  and  limbs. 
Turtles,  on  the  other  hand,  receiving  support  from 
the  element  in  which  they  reside,  require  less  pro- 
vision to  be  made  for  these  objects.  Previously  to 
the  retraction  of  the  head  and  limbs  within  the  shell, 
the  air  is  expelled  from  the  large  cavities  of  the 
lungs  by  the  vigorous  actions  of  the  abdominal 
muscles,  which  exist  in  these  animals  as  well  as  in  all 
the  vertebrata,  although  here  they  are  covered  by 
the  bones,  and  compress  the  lungs  by  pushing  the 
abdominal  iriscera  against  them.  This  sudden  ex- 
pulsion of  air  is  the  cause  of  the  long-continued  hiss- 
ing sound  which  the  tortoise  emits  while  preparing 
to  retreat  into  its  stronghold. 

The  ribs,  though  they  first  assume  the  form  of 

F  VOL.  IV. 


1400  THE  STORY   OF   THE   UNIVERSE 

broad  plates  immovably  united  to  the  spine,  when 
they  have  proceeded  a  certain  distance  separate  from 
each  other  and  resume  their  usual  form;  the  inter- 
vening spaces  between  two  adjacent  ribs  being  here 
filled  up  by  membrane.  The  plastron  is  united 
with  the  carapace  by  membrane  likewise;  and  the 
sternum,  instead  of  forming  one  broad  plate  of  bone, 
has  the  intervals  between  its  imperfectly  developed 
elements  also  membraneous.  All  this  renders  the 
whole  shell  less  compact,  more  flexible,  and  more 
feeble :  but  the  movements  of  the  animal  are  quicker 
and  more  energetic. 

These  characteristic  differences  between  the  aquat- 
ic Chelonia  and  those  that  live  on  land  are  still  more 
strongly  marked  in  the  genus  Trionyx,  or  soft  tor- 
toise, which  is  destitute  of  scales,  and  in  which  many 
of  the  pieces  that  are  bony  in  the  tortoise  are  replaced 
by  simple  cartilage  or  membrane. 

The  enormous  weight  of  the  shell  of  the  turtle 
would  be  a  serious  impediment  to  the  motion  of  this 
animal  in  the  water,  were  there  not  some  provision 
made  for  diminishing  the  specific  gravity  in  the  body. 
This  purpose  is  answered  by  the  great  capacity  of 
the  lungs,  which,  when  inflated  with  air,  nearly  fill 
the  thorax,  and  give  great  buoyancy  to  the  whole 
mass.  Thus,  wherever  there  exists  a  supposed  incon- 
venience, dependent  on  the  fulfilment  of  one  condi- 
tion, we  are  certain  to  meet  with  a  compensation  in 
the  structure  of  some  other  part  and  in  the  mode  of 
executing  some  other  function.  An  express  pro- 
vision for  giving  buoyancy  has  been  made  in  the  con- 
struction of  the  shell  of  a  species  of  tortoise  inhabit- 


CLASSIFICATION  AND  ORIGIN  OF  INSECTS        1401 

ing  the  coasts  of  the  Scychelle  Islands.  The  under 
surface  of  the  shell,  instead  of  being  gently  concave, 
as  in  land  tortoises,  has  a  deep  circular  concavity  in 
the  centre,  above  four  inches  in  depth,  which,  when 
the  animal  goes  into  the  water,  retains  a  large  vol- 
ume of  air,  buoying  up  the  whole  mass  while  it  re- 
mains in  that  element.  The  greater  size  of  turtles, 
when  compared  with  tortoises,  is  a  further  instance 
of  the  superior  facility  with  which  organic  growth 
proceeds  in  aquatic  than  in  land  animals  formed  on 
the  same  model  of  construction. 

THE  CLASSIFICATION  AND  ORI- 
GIN  OF  INSECTS.— LORD  AVEBURY 

ABOUT  sixty  years  ago  the  civil  and  ecclesiasti- 
cal authorities  of  St.  Fernando  in  Chili  ar- 
rested a  certain  M.  Renous  on  a  charge  of  witchcraft 
because  he  kept  some  caterpillars  which  turned  into 
butterflies.  This  was  no  doubt  an  extreme  case  of 
ignorance;  it  is  now  almost  universally  known  that 
the  great  majority  of  insects  quit  the  egg  in  a  state 
very  different  from  that  which  they  ultimately  as- 
sume; and  the  general  statement  in  works  on  ento- 
mology has  been  that  the  life  of  an  insect  may  be 
divided  into  four  periods. 

Thus,  according  to  Kirby  and  Spence,  "the  states 
through  which  the  insects  pass  are  four:  the  egg,  the 
larva,  the  pupa,  and  the  imago"  Burmeister,  also, 
says  that,  excluding  certain  very  rare  anomalies,  "we 
may  observe  four  distinct  periods  of  existence  in 
every  insect — namely,  those  of  the  egg,  the  larva, 


1402  THE   STORY   OF  THE    UNIVERSE 

the  pupa,  and  the  imago,  or  perfect  insect."  In  fact, 
however,  the  various  groups  of  insects  differ  widely 
from  one  another  in  the  metamorphoses  they  pass 
through:  in  some,  as  in  the  grasshoppers  and  crickets, 
the  changes  consist  principally  in  a  gradual  increase 
of  size,  and  in  the  acquisition  of  wings ;  while  others, 
as,  for  instance,  the  common  fly,  acquire  their  full 
bulk  in  a  form  very  different  from  that  which  they 
ultimately  assume,  and  pass  through  a-  period  of  in- 
action in  which  not  only  is  the  whole  form  of  the 
body  altered,  not  only  are  legs  and  wings  acquired, 
but  even  the  internal  organs  themselves  are  almost 
entirely  disintegrated  and  re-formed. 

The  following  list  gives  the  orders  or  principal 
groups  into  which  the  Class  Insecta  may  be  divided. 
I  will  not,  indeed,  here  enter  upon  my  own  views,  but 
will  adopt  the  system  given  by  Mr.  Westwood  in  his 
excellent  Introduction  to  the  Modern  Classification 
of  Insects.  He  divides  insects  into  thirteen  groups, 
and  with  reference  to  eight  of  them  it  may  be  said 
that  there  is  little  difference  of  opinion  among  en- 
tomologists. These  orders  are  by  far  the  most  nu- 
merous, and  I  have  placed  them  in  capital  letters. 
As  regards  the  other  five  there  is  still  much  differ- 
ence of  opinion.  It  must  also  be  observed  that  Prof. 
Westwood  omits  the  parasitic  Anoplura,  as  well  as 
the  Thysanura  and  Collembola. 

ORDERS  OF  INSECTS  ACCORDING  TO  WESTWOOD 

1.  HYMENOPTERA  .  Bees,  Wasps,  Ants,  etc. 

2.  Strepsiptera    .  .  Stylops,  Zenos,  etc. 

3.  COLEOPTERA    .  .  Beetles. 

4.  Euplexoptera  .  .  Earwigs. 


CLASSIFICATION  AND  ORIGIN  OF  INSECTS        1403 

5.  ORTHOPTERA  .  .  Grasshoppers,  Crickets,  Cockroaches,  etc. 

6.  Thysanoptera  .  Thrips. 

7.  NEUROPTERA  .  .  Ephemeras,  etc. 

8.  Trichoptera    .  .  Phryganea. 

9.  DIPTERA    .     .  .  Flies  and  Gnats. 

10.  Aphaniptera  Fleas. 

11.  HETEROPTERA  .   Bugs. 

12.  HOMOPTERA    .  .   Aphis,  Coccus,  etc. 

13.  LEPIDOPTERA  .  .   Butterflies  and  Moths. 

Of  these  thirteen  orders,  the  eight  which  I  have 
placed  in  capital  letters — namely,  the  first,  third, 
fifth,  seventh,  ninth,  eleventh,  twelfth,  and  thirteenth 
— are  much  the  most  important  in  the  number  and 
variety  of  their  species;  the  other  five  form  compara- 
tively small  groups.  The  Strepsiptera  are  minute 
insects,  parasitic  on  Hymenoptera:  Rossi,  by  whom 
they  were  discovered,  regarded  them  as  Hymenop- 
terous;  Lamarck  placed  them  among  the  Diptera; 
by  others  they  have  been  considered  to  be  most  closely 
allied  to  the  Coleoptera,  but  they  are  now  generally 
treated  as  an  independent  order. 

The  Euplexoptera  or  Earwigs  are  only  too  fa- 
miliar to  most  of  us.  Linnaeus  classed  them  among 
the  Coleoptera,  from  which,  however,  they  differ  in 
their  transformations.  Fabricius,  Olivier,  and  La- 
treille  regarded  them  as  Orthoptera;  but  Dr.  Leach, 
on  account  of  the  structure  of  their  wings,  consid- 
ered them  as  forming  the  type  of  a  distinct  order, 
in  which  view  he  has  been  followed  by  Westwood, 
Kirby,  and  many  other  entomologists. 

The  Thysanoptera,  consisting  of  the  Linnaean 
genus  Thrips,  are  minute  insects  well  known  to  gar- 
deners, differing  from  the  Coleoptera  in  the  nature  of 


1404  THE   STORY   OF  THE   UNIVERSE 

their  metamorphoses,  in  which  they  resemble  the 
Orthoptera  and  Hemiptera. 

The  Trichoptera,  or  Caddis  worms,  offer  many 
points  of  resemblance  to  the  Neuroptera,  while  in 
others  they  approach  more  nearly  to  the  Lepidop- 
tera.  According  to  Westwood,  the  genus  Phryganea 
"forms  the  cpnnecting  link  between  the  Neuroptera 
and  Lepidoptera." 

The  last  of  these  small  aberrant  orders  is  that  of 
the  Aphaniptera,  constituted  for  the  family  Pulicidae. 
In  their  transformations,  as  in  many  other  respects, 
they  closely  resemble  the  Diptera.  Strauss  Durck- 
heim  indeed  said  that  "la  puce  est  un  diptere  sans 
ailes."  Westwood,  however,  regards  it  as  consti- 
tuting a  separate  order. 

As  indicated  by  the  names  of  these  orders,  the 
structure  of  the  wings  affords  extremely  natural  and 
convenient  characters  by  which  the  various  groups 
may  be  distinguished  from  one  another.  The  mouth- 
parts  also  are  very  important;  and,  regarded  from 
this  point  of  view,  the  Insecta  have  been  divided 
into  two  series — the  Mandibulata  and  Haustellata,  or 
mandibulate  and  suctorial  groups,  between  which 
the  Collembola  occupy  an  intermediate  position. 
These  two  series  are: 

MANDIBULATA.  HAUSTELLATA. 

Hymenoptera.  Lepidoptera. 

Strepsiptera.  Diptera. 

Coleoptera.  Aphaniptera. 

Euplexoptera.  Hemiptera. 

Orthoptera.  Homoptera. 
Trichoptera  ? 
Thysanoptera  ? 


CLASSIFICATION  AND  ORIGIN  OF  INSECTS        1405 

Again — and  this  is  the  most  important  from  my 
present  point  of  view — insects  have  sometimes  been 
divided  into  two  other  series,  according  to  the  nature 
of  their  metamorphoses:  "Heteromorpha,"  to  use 
the  terminology  of  Prof.  Westwood,  "or  those  in 
which  there  is  no  resemblance  between  the  parent 
and  the  offspring;  and  Homomorpha,  or  those  in 
which  the  larva  resembles  the  imago,  except  in  the 
absence  of  wings.  In  the  former  the  larva  is  gen- 
erally worm-like,  of  a  soft  and  fleshy  consistence,  and 
furnished  with  a  mouth,  and  often  with  six  short 
legs  attached  in  pairs  to  the  three  segments  suc- 
ceeding the  head.  In  the  Homomorpha,  including 
the  Orthoptera,  Hemiptera,  Homoptera,  and  cer- 
tain Neuroptera,  the  body,  legs,  and  antennae  are 
nearly  similar  in  their  form  to  those  of  the  perfect 
insect,  but  the  wings  are  wanting." 

HETEROMORPHA.  HOMOMORPHA. 

Hymenoptera.  Euplexoptera. 

Strepsiptera.  Orthoptera. 

Coleoptera.  Hemiptera. 

Trichoptera.  Homoptera. 

Diptera.  Thysanoptera. 
Aphaniptera. 
Lepidoptera. 

Neuroptera. 

But  though  the  Homomorphic  insects  do  not  pass 
through  such  striking  changes  of  form  as  the  Het- 
eromorphic,  and  are  active  throughout  life,  still  it 
was  until  within  the  last  few  years  generally  (though 
erroneously)  considered,  that  in  them,  as  in  the  Het- 
eromorpha,  the  life  fell  into  four  distinct  periods; 


1406  THE  STORY   OF  THE   UNIVERSE 

those  of  (i)  the  egg,  (2)  the  larva,  characterized  by 
the  absence  of  wings,  (3)  the  pupa  with  imperfect 
wings,  and  (4)  the  imago,  or  perfect  insect. 

The  species  belonging  to  the  order  Hymenoptera 
are  among  the  most  interesting  of  insects.  To  this 
order  belong  the  gallflies,  the  sawflies,  the  ichneu- 
mons, and,  above  all,  the  ants  and  bees.  We  are 
accustomed  to  class  the  Anthropoid  apes  next  to  man 
in  the  scale  of  creation,  but  if  we  were  to  judge  ani- 
mals by  their  works,  the  chimpanzee  and  the  gorilla 
must  certainly  give  place  to  the  bee  and  the  ant.  The 
larva?  of  the  sawflies,  which  live  on  leaves,  and  of  the 
Siricidae  or  long-tailed  wasps,  which  feed  on  wood, 
are  very  much  like  caterpillars,  having  three  pairs 
of  legs,  and  in  the  former  case  abdominal  prolegs  as 
well:  but  in  the  great  majority  of  Hymenoptera  the 
larva?  are  legless,  fleshy  grubs ;  and  the  various  modes 
by  which  the  females  provide  for,  or  secure  to,  them 
a  sufficient  supply  of  appropriate  nourishment  con- 
stitutes one  of  the  most  interesting  pages  of  Natural 
History. 

The  species  of  Hymenoptera  are  very  numerous; 
in  England  alone  there  are  about  3,000  kinds,  most 
of  which  are  very  small.  In  the  pupa  state  they  are 
inactive,  and  show  distinctly  all  the  limbs  of  the  per- 
fect insect,  incased  in  distinct  sheaths,  and  folded  on 
the  breast.  In  the  perfect  state  they  are  highly  or- 
ganized and  very  active.  The  working  ants  and 
'some  few  species  are  wingless,  but  the  great  majority 
have  four  strong  membraneous  wings,  a  character  dis- 
tinguishing them  at  once  from  the  true  flies,  which 
have  only  one  pair  of  wings. 


CLASSIFICATION  AND  ORIGIN  OF  INSECTS        1407 

The  sawflies  are  so  called  because  they  possess  at 
the  end  of  the  body  a  curious  organ,  corresponding  to 
the  sting  of  a  wasp,  but  which  is  in  the  form  of  a 
fine-toothed  saw.  With  this  instrument  the  female 
sawfly  cuts  a  slit  in  the  stem  or  leaf  of  a  plant,  into 
which  she  introduces  her  egg.  The  larva  much  re- 
sembles a  caterpillar,  both  in  form  and  habits.  To 
this  group  belongs  the  nigger,  or  black  caterpillar 
of  the  turnip,  which  is  often  in  sufficient  numbers  to 
do  much  mischief.  Some  species  make  galls,  but  the 
greater  number  of  galls  are  formed  by  insects  of  an- 
other family,  the  Cynipidae. 

In  the  Cynipidae  the  female  is  provided  with  an 
organ  corresponding  to  the  saw  of  the  sawfly,  but 
resembling  a  needle.  With  this  she  stings  or  punc- 
tures the  surface  of  leaves,  buds,  stalks,  or  even  roots 
of  various  plants.  In  the  wound  thus  produced  she 
lays  one  or  more  eggs.  The  effects  of  this  proceeding, 
and  particularly  of  the  irritating  fluid  which  she 
injects  into  the  wound,  is  to  produce  a  tumor  or 
gall,  within  which  the  egg  hatches,  and  on  which 
the  larva,  a  thick  fleshy  grub,  feeds.  In  some  species 
each  gall  contains  a  single  larva;  in  others,  many 
live  together. 

The  oak  supports  several  kinds  of  gallflies:  one 
produces  the  well-known  oak-apple,  one  a  small 
swelling  on  the  leaf  resembling  a  currant,  another  a 
gall  somewhat  like  an  acorn,  another  attacks  the 
root;  the  species  making  the  bullet-like  galls,  which 
are  now  so  common,  has  only  existed  for  a  few  years 
in  England;  the  beautiful  little  spangles  so  common 
in  autumn  on  the  under  side  of  oak  leaves  are  the 


1408  THE  STORY   OF  THE   UNIVERSE 

work  of  another  species,  the  Cynips  longipennis. 
One  curious  point  about  this  group  is,  that  in  some 
of  the  commonest  species  the  females  alone  are 
known,  no  one  yet  having  ever  succeeded  in  find- 
ing a  male. 

Another  great  family  of  the  Hymenoptera  is  that 
of  the  ichneumons;  the  females  lay  their  eggs  either 
in  or  on  other  insects,  within  the  bodies  of  which  the 
larvae  live.  These  larvae  are  thick,  fleshy,  legless 
grubs,  and  feed  on  the  fatty  tissues  of  their  hosts, 
but  do  not  attack  the  vital  organs.  When  full- 
grown,  the  grubs  eat  their  way  through  the  skin  of 
the  insect,  and  turn  into  chrysalides.  Almost  every 
kind  of  insect  is  subject  to  the  attacks  of  these  little 
creatures,  which  are  no  doubt  useful  in  preventing 
the  too  great  multiplication  of  insects,  and  especially 
of  caterpillars.  Some  species  are  so  minute  that 
they  actually  lay  their  eggs  within  those  of  other  in- 
sects. These  parasites  assume  very  curious  forms  in 
their  larval  state. 

But  of  all  the  Hymenoptera,  the  group  containing 
the  ant,  the  bee,  and  the  wasp  is  the  most  interesting. 
This  is  especially  the  case  with  the  social  species, 
though  the  solitary  ones  also  are  extremely  remark- 
able. The  solitary  bee  or  wasp,  for  instance,  forms 
a  cell  generally  in  the  ground,  places  in  it  a  sufficient 
amount  of  food,  lays  an  egg,  and  closes  the  cell.  In 
the  case  of  bees,  the  food  consists  of  honey;  in  that 
of  wasps,  the  larva  requires  animal  food,  and  the 
mother  therefore  places  a  certain  number  of  insects 
in  the  cell,  each  species  having  its  own  special  prey, 
some  selecting  small  caterpillars,  some  beetles,  some 


CLASSIFICATION  AND  ORIGIN  OF  INSECTS        1409 

spiders.  Cerceris  bupresticida,  as  its  name  denotes, 
attacks  beetles  belonging  to  the  genus  Buprestis. 
Now  if  the  Cerceris  were  to  kill  the  beetle  before 
placing  it  in  the  cell,  it  would  decay,  and  the  young 
larva,  when  hatched,  would  find  only  a  mass  of  cor- 
ruption. On  the  other  hand,  if  the  beetle  were 
buried  uninjured,  in  its  struggles  to  escape  it  would 
be  almost  certain  to  destroy  the  egg.  The  wasp  has, 
however,  the  instinct  of  stinging  its  prey  in  the  centre 
of  the  nervous  system,  thus  depriving  it  of  motion, 
and  let  us  hope  of  suffering,  but  not  of  life;  conse- 
quently, when  the  young  larva  leaves  the  egg,  it  finds 
ready  a  sufficient  store  of  wholesome  food. 

Other  wasps  are  social,  and,  like  the  bees  and  ants, 
dwell  together  in  communities.  They  live  for  one 
season,  dying  in  autumn,  except  some  of  the  females, 
which  hibernate,  awake  in  the  spring,  and  form  new 
colonies.  These,  however,  do  not,  under  ordinary 
circumstances,  live  through  a  second  winter.  One 
specimen  which  I  kept  tame  through  one  spring  and 
summer  lived  until  the  end  of  February,  but  then 
died.  The  larvae  of  wasps  are  fat,  fleshy,  legless 
grubs.  When  full-grown  they  spin  for  themselves 
a  silken  covering,  within  which  they  turn  into  chrys- 
alides. The  oval  bodies  which  are  so  numerous  in 
ants'  nests,  and  which  are  generally  called  ants'  eggs, 
are  really  not  eggs,  but  cocoons.  Ants  are  very  fond 
of  the  honey-dew  which  is  formed  by  the  Aphides, 
and  have  been  seen  to  tap  the  Aphides  with  their  an- 
tennae, as  if  to  induce  them  to  emit  some  of  the  sweet 
secretion.  There  is  a  species  of  Aphis  which  lives  on 
the  roots  of  grass,  and  some  ants  collect  these  into 


1410  THE  STORY   OF  THE   UNIVERSE 

their  nests,  keeping  them,  in  fact,  just  as  we  do  cows. 
Moreover,  they  collect  the  eggs  in  the  autumn  and 
tend  them  through  the  winter  (when  they  are  of  no 
use)  with  the  same  care  as  their  own,  so  as  to  have 
a  supply  of  young  Aphides  in  the  spring.  This  is  one 
of  the  most  remarkable  facts  I  know  in  the  whole 
history  of  animal  life.  One  species  of  red  ant  does 
no  work  for  itself,  but  makes  slaves  of  a  black  kind, 
which  then  do  everything  for  their  masters.  The 
slave  makers  will  not  even  put  food  into  their  own 
mouths,  but  would  starve  in  the  midst  of  plenty  if 
they  had  not  a  slave  to  feed  them.  I  found,  how- 
ever, that  I  could  keep  them  in  life  and  health  for 
months  if  I  gave  them  a  slave  for  an  hour  or  two  in 
a  week  to  clean  and  feed  them. 

Ants  also  keep  a  variety  of  beetles  and  other  insects 
in  their  nests.  Some  of  these  produce  a  secretion 
which  is  licked  by  the  ants  as  they  do  the  honeydew ; 
there  are  others,  however,  which  have  not  yet  been 
shown  to  be  of  any  use  to  the  ants,  and  yet  are  rarely, 
if  ever,  found,  excepting  in  ants'  nests.  That  the  ants 
have  some  reason  for  tolerating  their  presence  seems 
clear,  because  they  readily  attack  any  unwelcome  in- 
truder; but  what  that  reason  is,  we  do  not  yet  know. 
If  these  insects  are  to  be  regarded. as  the  domestic 
animals  of  the  ants,  then  we  must  admit  that  the  ants 
possess  more  domestic  animals  than  we  do. 

M.  Lespes,  who  regards  these  insects  as  true  do- 
mestic animals,  has  recorded  some  interesting  obser- 
vations on  the  relations  between  one  of  them  (Clavi- 
ger  Duvalii)  and  the  ants  (Lasius  niger)  with  which 
it  lives.  This  species  of  Claviger  is  never  met  with 


CLASSIFICATION  AND  ORIGIN  OF  INSECTS        1411 

except  in  ants'  nests,  though,  on  the  other  hand,  there 
are  many  communities  of  Lasius  which  possess  none 
of  these  beetles;  and  M.  Lespes  found  that  when  he 
placed  Clavigers  in  a  nest  of  ants  which  had  none  of 
their  own,  the  beetles  were  immediately  killed  and 
eaten,  the  ants  themselves  being,  on  the  other  hand, 
kindly  received  by  other  communities  of  the  same 
species.  He  concludes  from  these  observations  that 
some  communities  of  ants  are  more  advanced  in 
civilization  than  others;  the  suggestion  is  no  doubt 
ingenious,  and  the  fact  curiously  resembles  the  ex- 
perience of  navigators  who  have  endeavored  to  in- 
troduce domestic  animals  among  barbarous  tribes. 

The  order  Strepsiptera  are  a  small  but  very  re- 
markable group  of  insects,  parasitic  on  bees  and 
wasps.  The  larva  is  minute,  six-legged,  and  very 
active;  it  passes  through  its  transformations  within 
the  body  of  the  bee  or  wrasp.  The  male  and  female 
are  very  dissimilar.  The  males  are  minute,  very  ac- 
tive, short-lived,  and  excitable,  with  one  pair  of  large 
membraneous  wings.  The  females,  on  the  contrary, 
are  almost  motionless,  and  shaped  very  much  like 
a  bottle ;  they  never  quit  the  body  of  the  bee,  but  only 
thrust  out  the  top  of  the  bottle  between  the  abdominal 
rings  of  the  bee. 

In  the  order  Coleoptera,  the  larvae  differ  very 
much  in  form.  The  majority  are  elongated,  active, 
hexapod,  and  more  or  less  depressed;  but  those  of  the 
Weevils, of  Scolytus,  etc., which  are  vegetable  feeders, 
and  live  surrounded  by  their  food — as,  for  instance, 
in  grain,  nuts,  etc. — are  apod,  white,  fleshy  grubs, 
not  unlike  those  of  bees  and  ants.  The  larvae  of  the 


1412  THE   STORY   OF   THE   UNIVERSE 

Longicorns,  which  live  inside  trees,  are  long,  soft, 
and  fleshy,  with  six  short  legs.  The  Geodephaga, 
corresponding  with  the  Linnaean  genera  Cicindela 
and  Carabus,  have  six-legged,  slender,  carnivorous 
larvae;  those  of  Cicindela,  which  waylay  their  prey, 
being  less  active  than  the  hunting  larvae  of  the  Carab- 
idae.  The  Hydradephaga,  or  water-beetles,  have 
long  and  narrow  larvae,  with  strong  sickle-shaped 
jaws,  short  antennae,  four  palpi,  and  six  small  eyes 
on  each  side  of  the  head;  they  are  very  voracious. 
The  larvae  of  the  Staphylinidae  are  by  no  means  un- 
like the  perfect  insect,  and  are  found  in  similar  situ- 
ations; their  jaws  are  powerful,  and  their  legs  mod- 
erately strong.  The  larvae  of  the  Lamellicorn  beetles 
— cock-chafers,  stag-beetles,  etc. — feed  on  vegetable 
substances  or  on  dead  animal  matter.  They  are 
long,  soft,  fleshy  grubs,  with  the  abdomen  somewhat 
curved,  and  generally  lie  on  their  side.  The  larvae 
of  the  Elateridae,  known  as  wireworms,  are  long  and 
slender,  with  short  legs.  That  of  the  glowworm 
(Lampyridae)  is  not  unlike  the  apterous  female. 
The  male  glowworm,  on  the  contrary,  is  very  differ- 
ent. It  has  long,  thin,  brown  wing-cases,  and  often 
flies  into  rooms  at  night,  attracted  by  the  light  which 
it  probably  mistakes  for  that  of  its  mate. 

The  metamorphoses  of  the  Cantharidae  are  very 
remarkable.  The  larvae  are  at  first  active  and  hexa- 
pod.  The  Phytophaga  are  vegetable  feeders,  both 
as  larvae  and  in  the  perfect  state.  The  larvae  are  fur- 
nished with  legs,  and  are  not  unlike  the  caterpillars 
of  certain  Lepidoptera. 

The  larva  of  Coccinella  (the  ladybird)   is  some- 


CLASSIFICATION  AND  ORIGIN  OF  INSECTS        1413 

what  depressed,  of  an  elongated  ovate  form,  with  a 
small  head,  and  moderately  strong  legs.  It  feeds  on 
Aphides, 

Thus,  then,  we  see  that  there  are  among  the  Cole- 
optera  many  different  forms  of  larvae.  Macleay  con- 
sidered that  there  were  five  principal  types. 

The  pupa  of  the  Coleoptera  is  quiescent,  and  "the 
parts  of  the  future  beetle  are  plainly  perceivable, 
being  incased  in  distinct  sheaths;  the  head  is  applied 
against  the  breast;  the  antennae  lie  along  the  sides 
of  the  thorax;  the  elytra  and  wings  are  short  and 
folded  at  the  sides  of  the  body,  meeting  on  the  under 
side  of  the  abdomen;  the  two  anterior  pairs  of  legs 
are  entirely  exposed,  but  the  hind  pair  are  covered 
by  wing-cases,  the  extremity  of  the  thigh  only  ap- 
pearing beyond  the  sides  of  the  body."  * 

In  the  next  three  orders — namely,  the  Orthoptera 
(grasshoppers,  locusts,  crickets,  walking-stick  insects, 
cockroaches,  etc. ),Euplexoptera( earwigs),  and  Thy- 
sanoptera,  a  small  group  of  insects  well  known  to 
gardeners  under  the  name  of  Thrips — the  larvae  when 
they  quit  the  egg  already  much  resemble  the  mature 
form,  differing,  in  fact,  principally  in  the  absence 
of  wings,  which  are  more  or  less  gradually  acquired, 
as  the  insect  increases  in  size.  They  are  active 
throughout  life.  Those  specimens  which  have  rudi- 
mentary wings  are,  however,  usually  called  pupae. 

The  Neuropttra  present,  perhaps,  more  differences 
in  the  character  of  their  metamorphoses  than  any 
other  order  of  insects.  Their  larvae  are  generally 

*  Westwood's  "Introduction." 


1414  THE   STORY   OF  THE   UNIVERSE 

active,  hexapod  little  creatures,  and  do  not  vary 
from  one  another  in  appearance  so  much,  for  in- 
stance, as  those  of  the  Coleoptera,  but  their  pupae 
differ  essentially;  some  groups  remaining  active 
throughout  life,  like  the  Orthoptera;  while  a  second 
division  have  quiescent  pupae,  which,  however,  in 
some  cases,  acquire  more  or  less  power  of  locomo- 
tion shortly  before  they  assume  the  mature  state; 
thus  that  of  Raphidia,  though  motionless  at  first,  at 
length  acquires  strength  enough  to  walk,  even  while 
still  inclosed  in  the  pupa  skin,  which  is  very  thin. 

One  of  the  most  remarkable  families  belonging  to 
this  order  is  that  of  the  Termites,  or  so-called  white 
ants.  They  abound  in  the  tropics,  where  they  are  a 
perfect  pest,  and  a  serious  impediment  to  human 
development.  Their  colonies  are  extremely  numer- 
ous, and  they  attack  woodwork  and  furniture  of  all 
kinds,  generally  working  from  within,  so  that  their 
presence  is  often  unsuspected  until  it  is  suddenly 
found  that  they  have  completely  eaten  away  the  in- 
terior of  some  post  or  table,  leaving  nothing  but  a 
thin  outer  shell.  Their  nests,  which  are  made  of 
earth,  are  sometimes  ten  or  twelve  feet  high,  and 
strong  enough  to  bear  a  man.  One  species,  Termes 
lucifugus,  is  found  in  the  south  of  France,  where  it 
has  been  carefully  studied  by  Latreille.  He  found 
in  these  communities  five  kinds  of  individuals — (i) 
males;  (2)  females,  which  grow  to  a  very  large  size, 
their  bodies  being  distended  with  eggs,  of  which  they 
sometimes  lay  as  many  as  80,000  in  a  day;  (3)  a 
form  described  by  some  observers  as  pupae,  but  by 
others  as  neuters.  These  differ  very  much  from  the 


CLASSIFICATION  AND  ORIGIN  OF  INSECTS        1415 

others,  having  a  long,  soft  body  without  wings,  but 
with  an  immense  head,  and  very  large,  strong  jaws. 
These  individuals  act  as  soldiers,  doing  apparently 
no  work,  but  keeping  watch  over  the  nest  and  at- 
tacking intruders  with  great  boldness.  (4)  Apterous 
eyeless  individuals,  somewhat  resembling  the  winged 
ones,  but  with  a  larger  and  more  rounded  head; 
these  constitute  the  greater  part  of  the  community, 
and,  like  the  workers  of  ants  and  bees,  perform  all  the 
labor,  building  the  nest  and  collecting  food.  (5) 
Latreille  mentions  another  kind  of  individual  which 
he  regards  as  the  pupa,  and  which  resembles  the 
workers,  but  has  four  white  tubercles  on  the  back, 
where  the  wings  afterward  make  their  appearance. 
There  is  still,  however,  much  difference  of  opinion 
among  entomologists  with  reference  to  the  true  na- 
ture of  these  different  classes  of  individuals.  M. 
Lespes,  who  has  studied  the  same  species,  describes 
a  second  kind  of  male  and  a  second  kind  of  female, 
and  the  subject,  indeed,  is  one  which  offers  a  most 
promising  field  for  future  study. 

Another  interesting  family  of  Neuroptera  is  that 
of  the  Ephemerae,  or  Mayflies,  so  well  known  to  fish- 
ermen. The  larvae  are  semi-transparent,  active,  six- 
legged  little  creatures,  which  live  in  water;  having 
at  first  no  gills,  they  respire  through  the  general  sur- 
face of  the  body.  They  grow  rapidly  and  change 
their  skin  every  few  days.  After  one  or  two  moults 
they  acquire  seven  pairs  of  branchiae,  or  gills,  which 
are  generally  in  the  form  of  leaves,  one  pair  to  the 
segment.  When  the  larvae  are  about  half  grown,  the 
posterior  angles  of  the  two  posterior  thoracic  seg- 


U16  THE   STORY   OF  THE   UNIVERSE 

ments  begin  to  elongate.  These  elongations  become 
more  and  more  marked  with  every  change  of  skin. 
One  morning,  in  the  month  of  June,  some  years  ago, 
I  observed  a  full-grown  larva,  which  had  a  glisten- 
ing appearance,  owing  to  the  presence  of  a  film  of  air 
under  the  skin.  I  put  if  under  the  microscope,  and, 
having  added  a  drop  of  water  with  a  pipette,  looked 
through  the  glass.  To  my  astonishment,  the  insect 
was  gone,  and  an  empty  skin_only  remained.  I  then 
caught  a  second  specimen  in  a  similar  condition,  and 
put  it  under  the  microscope,  hoping  to  see  it  come 
out.  Nor  was  I  disappointed.  Very  few  moments 
had  elapsed,  when  I  had  the  satisfaction  of  seeing  the 
thorax  open  along  the  middle  of  the  back;  the  two 
sides  turned  over;  the  insect  literally  walked  out  of 
itself,  unfolded  its  wings,  and  in  an  instant  flew  up 
to  the  window.  Several  times  since,  I  have  had  the 
pleasure  of  witnessing  this  marvelous  change,  and  it 
is  really  wonderful  how  rapidly  it  takes  place :  from 
the  moment  when  the  skin  first  cracks,  not  ten  seconds 
are  over  before  the  insect  has  flown  away. 

Another  family  of  Neuroptera,  the  dragon-flies, 
or  horse-stingers,  as  they  are  sometimes  called,  from 
a  mistaken  idea  that  they  sting  severely  enough  to 
hurt  a  horse,  though  in  fact  they  are  quite  harmless, 
also  spend  their  early  days  in  the  water.  The  larvae 
are  brown,  sluggish,  ugly  creatures,  with  six  legs. 
They  feed  on  small  water-animals,  for  which  they 
wait  very  patiently,  either  at  the  bottom  of  the  water 
or  on  some  aquatic  plant.  The  lower  jaws  are  at- 
tached to  a  long  folding  rod;  and  when  any  unwary 
little  creature  approaches  too  near  the  larva,  this 


CLASSIFICATION  AND  ORIGIN  OF  INSECTS        1417 

apparatus  is  shot  out  with  such  velocity  that  the 
prey  which  comes  within  its  reach  seldom  escapes. 
In  their  perfect  condition,  also,  dragon-flies  feed  on 
other  insects,  and  may  often  be  seen  hawking  round 
ponds.  The  so-called  ant-lions  in  many  respects  re- 
semble the  dragon-flies,  but  the  habits  of  the  larvae 
are  very  dissimilar.  They  do  not  live  in  the  water, 
but  prefer  dry  places,  where  they  bury  themselves 
in  the  loose  sand,  and  seize  with  their  long  jaws  any 
small  insect  which  may  pass.  The  true  ant-lion 
makes  itself  a  round,  shallow  pit  in  loose  ground  or 
sand,  and  buries  itself  at  the  bottom.  Any  inatten- 
tive little  insect  which  steps  over  the  edge  of  this  pit 
immediately  falls  to  the  bottom,  and  is  instantane- 
ously seized  by  the  ant-lion.  Should  the  insect  es- 
cape, and  attempt  to  climb  up  the  side  of  the  pit,  the 
ant-lion  is  said  to  throw  sand  at  it,  knocking  it  down 
again. 

One  other  family  of  Neuroptera  which  I  must 
mention  is  the  Hemerobiidae.  The  perfect  insect  is 
a  beautiful,  lace-winged,  very  delicate,  green  crea- 
ture, something  like  a  tender  dragon-fly,  and  with 
bright,  green,  touching  eyes.  The  female  deposits 
her  eggs  on  leaves,  not  directly  on  the  plant  itself, 
but  attached  to  it  by  a  long  white  slender  footstalk. 
The  larva  has  six  legs  and  powerful  jaws,  and  makes 
itself  very  useful  in  destroying  the  hop-fly. 

The  insects  forming  the  order  Trichoptera  are 
well  known  in  their  larval  condition  under  the 
name  of  caddis  worms.  These  larva?  are  not  alto- 
gether unlike  caterpillars  in  form,  but  they  live  in 
water — which  is  the  case  with  very  few  lepidopterous 


1418  THE   STORY   OF  THE   UNIVERSE 

larvae — and  form  for  themselves  cylindrical  cases  or 
tubes,  built  up  of  sand,  little  stones,  bits  of  stick, 
leaves,  or  even  shells.  They  generally  feed  on  vege- 
table substances,  but  will  also  attack  minute  fresh- 
water animals.  When  full  grown,  the  larva  fastens 
its  case  to  a  stone,  the  stem  of  a  plant,  or  some  other 
fixed  substance,  and  closes  the  two  ends  with  an  open 
grating  of  silken  threads,  so  as  to  admit  the  free  ac- 
cess of  water,  while  excluding  enemies.  It  then  turns 
into  a  pupa  which  bears  some  resemblance  to  the  per- 
fect insect,  "except  that  the  antennae,  palpi,  wings, 
and  legs  are  shorter,  inclosed  in  separate  sheaths,  and 
arranged  upon  the  breast."  The  pupa  remains  quiet 
in  the  tube  until  nearly  ready  to  emerge,  when  it 
comes  to  the  surface,  and  in  some  cases  creeps  out  of 
the  water.  It  is  not  therefore  so  completely  motion- 
less as  the  pupae  of  Lepidoptera. 

The  Diptera,  or  flies,  comprise  insects  with  two 
wings  only,  the  hinder  pair  being  represented  by  mi- 
nute club-shaped  organs  called  "halteres."  Flies 
quit  the  egg  generally  in  the  form  of  fat,  fleshy, 
legless  grubs.  They  feed  principally  on  decaying 
animal  or  vegetable  matter,  and  are  no  doubt  useful 
as  scavengers.  Other  species,  as  the  gadflies,  deposit 
their  eggs  on  the  bodies  of  animals,  within  which  the 
grubs  feed,  when  hatched.  The  mouth  is  generally 
furnished  with  two  hooks  which  serve  instead  of  jaws. 
The  pupae  of  Diptera  are  of  two  kinds.  In  the  true 
flies,  the  outer  skin  of  the  full-grown  larva  is  not  shed, 
but  contracts  and  hardens,  thus  assuming  the  appear- 
ance of  an  oval  brownish  shell  or  case,  within  which 
the  insect  changes  into  a  chrysalis.  The  pupae  of  the 


CLASSIFICATION  AND  ORIGIN  OF  INSECTS 

gnats,  on  the  contrary,  have  the  limbs  distinct  and 
inclosed  in  sheaths.  They  are  generally  inactive,  but 
some  of  the  aquatic  species  continue  to  swim  about. 

One  group  of  flies,  which  is  parasitic  on  horses, 
sheep,  bats,  and  other  animals,  has  been  called  the 
Pupipara,  because  it  was  supposed  that  they  were 
not  born  until  they  had  arrived  at  the  condition  of 
pupae.  They  come  into  the  world  in  the  form  of 
smooth,  ovate  bodies,  much  resembling  ordinary  dip- 
terous pupae,  but  as  Leuckart  has  shown,  they  are 
true,  though  abnormal,  larvae. 

The  next  order,  that  of  the  Aphaniptera,  is  very 
small  in  number,  containing  only  the  different  species 
of  flea.  The  larva  is  long,  cylindrical,  and  legless; 
the  chrysalis  is  motionless,  and  the  perfect  insect  is 
too  well  known,  at  least  as  regards  its  habits,  to  need 
any  description. 

The  Heteroptera,  unlike  the  preceding  orders  of 
insects,  quit  the  egg  in  a  form  differing  from  that  of 
the  perfect  insect  principally  in  the  absence  of  wings, 
which  are  gradually  acquired.  In  their  metamor- 
phoses they  resemble  the  Orthoptera,  and  are  active 
through  life.  The  majority  are  dull  in  color,  though 
some  few  are  very  beautiful.  The  species  constitut- 
ing this  group,  though  very  numerous,  are  generally 
small,  and  not  so  familiarly  known  to  us  as  those  of 
the  other  large  orders,  with  indeed  one  exception,  the 
well-known  bug.  This  is  not,  apparently,  an  in- 
digenous insect,  but  seems  to  have  been  introduced. 
The  word  is  indeed  used  by  old  writers,  but  either 
as  meaning  a  bugbear,  or  in  a  general  sense,  and  not 
with  reference  to  this  particular  insect.  In  Britain 


1420  THE  STORY  OF  THE   UNIVERSE 

it  never  acquires  wings,  but  is  stated  to  do  so 
sometimes  in  warmer  climates.  The  Heteroptera 
can  not  exactly  be  said  either  to  sting  or  bite.  The 
jaws,  of  which,  as  usual  among  insects,  there  are  two 
pairs,  are  like  needles,  which  are  driven  into  the 
flesh,  and  the  blood  is  then  sucked  up  by  the  lower  lip, 
which  has  the  form  of  a  tube.  This  peculiar  struc- 
ture of  the  mouth  prevails  throughout  the  whole 
order;  consequently  their  nutriment  consists  almost 
entirely  of  the  juices  of  animals  or  plants.  The 
Homoptera  agree  with  the  Heteroptera  in  the  struc- 
ture of  the  mouth,  and  in  the  metamorphoses.  They 
differ  principally  in  the  front  wings,  which  in  Ho- 
moptera are  membraneous  throughout,  while  in  the 
Heteroptera,  the  front  part  is  thickened  and  leathery. 
As  in  the  Heteroptera,  however,  so  also  in  the  Ho- 
moptera, some  species  do  not  acquire  wings.  The 
Cicada,  celebrated  for  its  chirp,  and  the  lanthorn 
fly,  belong  to  this  group".  So  also  does  the  so-called 
cuckoo-spit,  so  common  in  English  gardens,which  has 
the  curious  faculty  of  secreting  round  itself  a  quan- 
tity of  frothy  fluid  which  serves  to  protect  it  from 
its  enemies.  But  the  best  known  insects  of  this  group 
are  the  Aphides  or  plant-lice;  while  the  most  use- 
ful belong  to  the  Coccidae,  or  scale  insects,  from  one 
species  of  which  we  obtain  the  substance  called  lac, 
so  extensively  used  in  the  manufacture  of  sealing- 
wax  and  varnish.  Several  species  also  have  been 
used  in  dyeing,  especially  the  cochineal  insect  of 
Mexico,  a  species  which  lives  on  the  cactus.  The 
male  coccus  is  a  minute,  active  insect,  with  four 
large  wings;  while  the  female,  on  the  contrary,  never 


CLASSIFICATION  AND  ORIGIN  OF  INSECTS        1421 

acquires  wings,  but  is  very  sluggish,  broad,  more  or 
less  flattened,  and  in  fact,  when  full  grown,  looks 
like  a  small  brown,  red,  or  white  scale. 

The  larvae  of  the  order  Lepidoptera  are  familiar 
to  us  all  under  the  name  of  caterpillars.  The  in- 
sects of  this  order  in  their  larval  condition  are 
almost  all  phytophagous,  and  are  very  uniform 
both  in  structure  and  in  habits.  The  body  is  long 
and  cylindrical,  consisting  of  thirteen  segments; 
the  head  is  armed  with  powerful  jaws;  the  three 
following  segments,  the  future  prothorax,  meso- 
thorax,  and  metathorax,  each  bears  a  pair  of  simple 
articulated  legs.  Of  the  posterior  segments,  five  also 
bear  false  or  prolegs,  which  are  short,  unjointed, 
and  provided  with  a  number  of  booklets.  A  cater- 
pillar leads  a  dull  and  uneventful  life;  it  eats  raven- 
ously and  grows  rapidly,  casting  its  skin  several  times 
during  the  process,  which  generally  lasts  only  a  few 
weeks;  though  in  some  cases,  as,  for  instance,  that  of 
the  goat-moth,  it  extends  over  a  period  of  two  or 
three  years,  after  which  the  larva  changes  into  a 
quiescent  pupa  or  chrysalis. 

Fossil  insects  are,  unfortunately,  rare,  there  being 
but  few  strata  in  which  the  remains  of  this  group 
are  well  preserved.  Moreover,  well-characterized 
Orthoptera  and  Neuroptera  occur  as  early  as  the 
Devonian  strata;  Coleoptera  and  Hemiptera  in  the 
Coal-measures;  Hymenoptera  and  Diptera  in  the 
Jurassic;  Lepidoptera,  on  the  contrary,  not  until 
the  Tertiary.  But  although  it  appears  from  these 
facts  that,  as  far  as  our  present  information  goes, 
the  Orthoptera  and  Neuroptera  are  the  most  ancient 


1422  THE   STORY   OF  THE   UNIVERSE 

orders,  it  is  not,  I  think,  conceivable  that  the  latter 
should  have  been  derived  from  any  known  species  of 
the  former;  on  the  other  hand,  the  earliest  known 
Neuroptera  and  Orthoptera,  though  in  some  respects 
less  specialized  than  existing  forms,  are  as  truly  and 
as  well  characterized  insects  as  any  now  existing; 
nor  are  we  acquainted  with  any  earlier  forms  which 
in  any  way  tend  to  bridge  over  the  gap  between  them 
and  lower  groups,  though,  as  we  shall  see,  there  are 
types  yet  existing  which  throw  much  light  on  the 
subject. 

The  stag-beetle,  the  dragon-fly,  the  moth,  the 
bee,  the  ant,  the  gnat,  the  grasshopper — these  and 
other  less  familiar  types  seem  at  first  to  have  little 
in  common.  They  differ  in  size,  in  form,  in  color, 
in  habits,  and  modes  of  life.  Yet  the  researches  of 
entomologists,  following  the  clew  supplied  by  the 
illustrious  Savigny,  have  proved  not  only  that  while 
differing  greatly  in  details  they  are  constructed  on 
one  common  plan,  but  also  that  other  groups,  as, 
for  instance,  Crustacea  (lobsters,  crabs,  etc.)  and 
Arachnida  (spiders  and  mites),  can  be  shown  to  be 
fundamentally  similar. 

Thus,  then,  although  it  can  be  demonstrated  that 
perfect  insects,  however  much  they  differ  in  appear- 
ance, are  yet  reducible  to  one  type,  the  fact  becomes 
much  more  evident  if  we  compare  the  larvs.  M. 
Brauer  and  I  have  pointed  out  that  two  types  of 
larvae,  which  I  have  proposed  to  call  Campodea- 
form  and  Lindia-form,  and  which  Packard  has 
named  Leptiform  and  Eruciform,  run  through  the 
principal  groups  of  insects. 


Strange  and  Rare  Fishes 

i,  Diodon;  2,  Rhinobatus;  3,  Tetrodon;  4,  Galaxias;  5,  Pterois;  6,  Ostracion;  7,  Pelor 
Amia;  9,  Haplochiton;  10,  Callionymus;  n,  Cottus;  12,  Malthe;  13,  Blennius; 
14,  Pomacentrus;  15,  Chromis;  16,  Scorpaena 


CLASSIFICATION  AND  ORIGIN  OF  INSECTS        U23 

Let  me  say  a  word  as  to  the  general  insect  type. 
It  may  be  described  shortly  as  consisting  of  animals 
possessing  a  head,  with  mouth-parts,  eyes,  and  an- 
tennae; a  many-segmented  body,  with  three  pairs  of 
legs  on  the  segments  immediately  following  the  head ; 
with,  when  mature,  either  one  or  two  pairs  of  wings, 
generally  with  caudal  appendages. 

Thus,  then,  we  find  in  many  of  the  principal 
groups  of  insects  that,  greatly  as  they  differ  from 
one  another  in  their  mature  condition,  when  they 
leave  the  egg  they  more  nearly  resemble  the  typical 
insect  type,  consisting  of  a  head,  a  three-segmented 
thorax,  with  three  pairs  of  legs,  and  a  many-jointed 
abdomen,  often  with  anal  appendages.  Now,  is  there 
any  mature  animal  which  answers  to  this  description? 
We  need  not  have  been  surprised  if  this  type,  through 
which  it  would  appear  that  insects  must  have  passed 
so  many  ages  since  (for  winged  Neuroptera  have 
been  found  in  the  carboniferous  strata),  had  long  ago 
become  extinct.  Yet  it  is  not  so.  The  interesting 
genus  Campodea  still  lives;  it  inhabits  damp  earth, 
and  closely  resembles  the  larva  of  Chloeon,  consti- 
tuting, indeed,  a  type  which  occurs  in  many  orders  of 
insects.  It  is  true  that  the  mouth-parts  of  Campodea 
do  not  resemble  either  the  strongly  mandibulate  form 
which  prevails  among  the  larvae  of  Coleoptera,  Or- 
thoptera,  Neuroptera,  Hymenoptera,  Lepidoptera; 
or  the  suctorial  type  of  the  Homoptera  and  Heterop- 
tera.  It  is,  however,  not  the  less  interesting  or  sig- 
nificant on  that  account,  since  its  mouth-parts  are  in- 
termediate between  the  mandibulate  and  haustellate 
types ;  a  fact  which  seems  to  me  most  suggestive. 


1424  THE   STORY   OF  THE   UNIVERSE 

It  appears,  then,  that  there  are  good  grounds  for 
considering  that  the  various  types  of  insects  are  de- 
scended from  ancestors  more  or  less  resembling  the 
genus  Campodea,  with  a  body  divided  into  head, 
thorax,  and  abdomen ;  the  head  provided  with  mouth- 
parts,  eyes,  and  one  pair  of  antennae;  the  thorax  with 
three  pairs  of  legs;  and  the  abdomen,  in  all  proba- 
bility, with  caudal  appendages. 

If  these  views  are  correct,  the  genus  Campodea 
must  be  regarded  as  a  form  of  remarkable  interest, 
since  it  is  the  living  representative  of  a  primeval  type, 
from  which  not  only  the  Collembola  and  Thysanura, 
but  the  other  great  orders  of  insects  have  derived 
their  origin. 

Since,  then,  individual  insects  are  certainly  in  many 
cases  developed  from  larvae  closely  resembling  the 
genus  Campodea,  why  should  it  be  regarded  as  in- 
credible that  insects  as  a  group  have  gone  through 
similar  stages?  That  the  ancestors  of  beetles  under 
the  influence  of  varying  external  conditions,  and  in 
the  lapse  of  geological  ages,  should  have  undergone 
changes  which  the  individual  beetle  passes  through 
under  our  own  eyes  and  in  the  space  of  a  few  days,  is 
surely  no  wild  or  extravagant  hypothesis.  Again, 
other  insects  come  from  vermiform  larvae  much  re- 
sembling the  genus  Lindia,  and  it  has  been  also  re- 
peatedly shown  that  in  many  particulars  the  embryo 
of  the  more  specialized  forms  resembles  the  full- 
grown  representatives  of  lower  types.  I  conclude, 
therefore,  that  the  Insecta  generally  are  descended 
from  ancestors  resembling  the  existing  genus  Cam- 
podea, and  that  these  again  have  arisen  from  others 


INSECTS  1425 

belonging  to  a  type  represented  more  or  less  closely 
by  the  existing  genus  Lindia. 

Of  course  it  may  be  argued  that  these  facts  have 
not  really  the  significance  which  they  seem  to  me  to 
possess.  It  may  be  said  that  when  Divine  power 
created  insects,  they  were  created  with  these  remark- 
able developmental  processes.  By  such  arguments 
the  conclusions  of  geologists  were  long  disputed. 
When  God  made  the  rocks,  it  was  tersely  said,  He 
made  the  fossils  in  them.  No  one,  I  suppose,  would 
now  be  found  to  maintain  such  a  theory;  and  I  be- 
lieve the  time  will  come  when  it  will  be  generally 
admitted  that  the  structure  of  the  embryo,  and  its 
developmental  changes,  indicate  as  truly  the  course 
of  organic  development  in  ancient  times  as  the  con- 
tents of  rocks  and  their  sequence  teach  us  the  past 
history  of  the  earth  itself. 

INSECTS:    THEIR   WINGS, 
STINGS,  EARS,  AND  EYES 

— PHILIP  HENRY   GOSSE 

THE  most  perfect  fliers  in  existence  are  insects. 
The  swallow  and  the  humming-bird  are  pow- 
erful on  the  wing,  and  rapid;  but  neither  these  nor 
any  other  "winged  fowl"  can  be  compared  with  many 
of  the  filmy-winged  insects.  The  common  house- 
fly, for  example,  will  remain  for  hours  together 
floating  in  the  air  beneath  the  ceilings  of  our  dwell- 
ing-rooms, hovering  and  dancing  from  side  to  side, 
without  effort  and  without  fatigue.  It  has  been 
calculated  that  in  its  ordinary  flight  the  house-fly 


14:26  THE   STORY   OF   THE    UNIVERSE 

makes  about  600  strokes  with  its  wings  every  second, 
and  that  it  is  carried  through  the  air  a  distance  of 
five  feet  during  that  brief  period.  But,  if  alarmed, 
the  velocity  can  be  increased  six  or  sevenfold,  as 
every  one  must  have  observed,  so  as  to  carry  the  in- 
sect thirty  or  five-and-thirty  feet  in  the  second.  In 
the  same  space  of  time,  observes  Mr.  Kirby,  a  race- 
horse could  clear  only  ninety  feet,  which  is  at  the 
rate  of  more  than  a  mile  a  minute.  Our  little  fly, 
in  her  swiftest  flight,  will  in  the  same  space  of  time 
go  more  than  the  third  of  a  mile.  Now  compare  the 
infinite  difference  of  the  size  of  the  two  animals  (ten 
millions  of  the  fly  would  hardly  counterpoise  one 
racer),  and  how  wonderful  will  the  velocity  of  this 
minute  creature  appear!  Did  the  fly  equal  the  race- 
horse in  size,  and  retain  its  present  powers  in  the 
ratio  of  its  magnitude,  it  would  traverse  the  globe 
with  the  rapidity  of  lightning. 

Bees,  again,  are  accomplished  masters  of  aerial 
motion.  The  humble-bees,  notwithstanding  their 
heavy  bodies,  are  the  most  powerful  fliers  of  this 
class.  The  same  excellent  entomologist  tells  us  that 
they  "traverse  the  air  in  segments  of  a  circle,  the 
arc  of  which  is  alternately  to  right  and  left.  The 
rapidity  of  their  flight  is  so  great  that,  could  it  be 
calculated,  it  would  be  found,  the  size  of  the  creature 
considered,  far  to  exceed  that  of  any  bird,  as  has 
been  proved  by  the  observations  of  a  traveler  in  a 
railway  carriage  proceeding  at  the  rate  of  twenty 
miles  an  hour,  which  was  accompanied,  though  the 
wind  was  against  them,  for  a  considerable  distance 
by  a  humble-bee  (Bombus  subinterruptus),  not 


INSECTS  1427 

merely  with  the  same  rapidity,  but  even  greater,  as 
it  not  infrequently  flew  to  and  fro  about  the  carriage, 
or  described  zigzag  lines  in  its  flight.  The  aerial 
movements  of  the  hive-bee  are  more  distinct  and 
leisurely." 

You  have  doubtless  often  admired  the  noble 
dragon-fly,  with  its  four  ample  and  widespread 
wings  of  gauze,  hawking  in  a  green  lane,  or  over  a 
pool  in  the  noon  of  summer.  It  sails,  or  rather  shoots 
with  arrowy  fleetness  hither  and  thither,  now  for- 
ward, now  backward,  now  to  the  right,  now  to  the 
left,  without  turning  its  body,  but  simply  by  the 
action  of  its  powerful  and  elegant  wings.  Leeuwen- 
hoek  once  saw  an  insect  of  this  tribe  chased  by  a  swal- 
low in  a  menagerie  a  hundred  feet  long.  The  dragon- 
fly shot  along  with  such  astonishing  power  of  wing, 
to  the  right,  to  the  left,  and  in  all  directions,  that 
this  bird  of  rapid  flight  and  ready  evolution  was 
unable  to  overtake  and  capture  it,  the  insect  eluding 
every  attempt,  and  being  in  general  fully  six1  feet  in 
advance  of  the  bird.  A  dragon-fly  has  been  known 
to  fly  on  board  a  ship  at  sea,  the  nearest  land  being 
the  coast  of  Africa,  five  hundred  miles  distant,  a 
fact  highly  illustrative  of  its  power  of  wing. 

It  is  a  point  of  interest  to  know  the  structure  of 
the  organs  by  which  such  results  are  accomplished. 
Let  us  begin  with  the  common  fly.  Well,  we 
will  borrow  one  of  his  wings  for  the  lesson,  and, 
putting  it  into  the  stage-forceps,  we  shall  be  able  to 
turn  it  in  any  direction  for  observation  beneath  the 
microscope. 

At  first  it  seems  a  very  thin,  transparent  mem- 


1428  THE  STORY   OF  THE   UNIVERSE 

brane,  of  a  shape  between  triangular  and  oval,  with 
a  few  fine  black  lines  running  through  it,  and  along 
one  edge.  But  on  bringing  a  greater  magnifying 
power  to  bear  on  it,  we  see  that  the  clear  surface  is 
covered  with  minute  short  stiff  hairs,  each  of  which 
has  an  expanded  base.  And  still  further,  by  deli- 
cate focusing,  we  find  that  there  are  two  sets  of  these 
hairs,  which  come  into  view  alternately,  those  of  one 
row  projecting  upward  toward  our  eye,  those  of  the 
other  downward.  They  are  placed  on  both  the  upper 
and  under  surface,  and  are  in  fact  appendages  of  two 
distinct  membranes,  applied  to  each  other.  There 
is  some  reason  to  believe  that  these  hairs  are  deli- 
cate organs  of  touch  communicating  impressions 
through  the  skin  to  a  sensitive  layer  beneath;  at 
least  such  seems  their  function  on  the  body,  and 
we  may  judge  from  analogy  that  it  is  not  different 
here. 

The  black  lines  are  elastic,  horny  tubes,  over 
which  the  membranes  are  spread  and  stretched,  like 
the  silk  of  an  umbrella  by  its  ribs.  The  upper  mem- 
brane is  firmly  attached  to  the  tubes  (which  are 
called  neryures)  ;  the  lower  has  but  a  slight  adhesion, 
and  is  easily  stripped  from  them.  The  nervures 
originate  in  the  body,  and  diverge  like  a  fan  to  va- 
rious points  of  the  tip,  and  to  the  upper  and  lower 
edges;  some  of  them,  however,  terminate  in  the  sub- 
stance of  the  wing  without  reaching  the  edge,  and 
some  send  off  cross  branches  by  which  two  are  con- 
nected together.  They  generally  maintain  the  same 
thickness  throughout,  but  there  are  enlargements 
where  the  branches  join  the  main  trunks.  These 


INSECTS 

nervures  are  hollow,  and  are,  during  life,  filled  with 
a  subtile  fluid,  which  is  supplied  from  the  vessels  of 
the  body.  They  contain  also  ramifications  of  the  ex- 
quisite spiral  air-vessels. 

In  this  wing  of  the  bee  all  of  these  structures  may 
be  seen  to  greater  advantage.  Unlike  the  fly,  which 
has  but  a  single  pair  of  wings,  the  bee  has  two  pairs, 
of  which  the  fore  pair  is  the  larger  and  more  horny, 
the  hinder  pair  seeming  to  be,  as  it  were,  cut  out 
of  the  hinder  and  inner  side  of  the  fore  ones.  The 
two  edges — the  hinder  edge  of  the  fore  pair  and  the 
front  edge  of  the  hind  pair — then  correspond,  but 
it  is  necessary  that,  during  flight,  when  the  wings  are 
expanded,  the  two  wings  on  each  side  should  main- 
tain this  relative  position,  neither  overlapping  the 
other,  but  together  presenting  one  broad  surface, 
wherewith  to  beat  the  air.  There  must  be,  therefore, 
some  contrivance  for  locking  together  the  two  edges 
in  question,  which  yet  shall  be  capable  of  being  un- 
locked at  the  pleasure  of  the  animal;  for  the  wings 
during  repose  slide  over  one  another.  This  con- 
trivance is  furnished  by  a  series  of  hairs  or  spines 
running  along  the  front  edge  of  the  hindwing;  they 
are  bent  up  into  strong  semicircular  hooks,  arching 
outward,  looking,  under  a  high  power,  like  the  hooks 
on  a  butcher's  stall.  On  the  other  hand,  the  margin 
of  the  forewing  is  strengthened,  and  is  turned  over 
with  a  shallow  doubling,  so  as  to  make  a  groove  into 
which  the  hooks  catch;  and  thus,  while  the  fore- 
wings  are  expanded,  the  hooks  of  the  other  pair  are 
firmly  locked  in  their  doubled  edge,  while,  as  soon 
as  flight  ceases,  and  the  wings  are  relaxed,  there  is 


1430  THE  STORY   OF  THE   UNIVERSE 

no  hindrance  to  the  sliding  of  the  front  over  the 
hind  pair. 

The  wings  of  many  insects  are  interesting  on  ac- 
count of  the  organs  with  which  they  are  clothed.  A 
familiar  example  is  furnished  by  the  common  gnat. 
There  is  the  same  general  structure  as  before — two 
clear  elastic  membranes  stretched  over  slender  horny 
tubular  nervures,  and  studded  on  both  surfaces  with 
short  spine-like  hairs,  which  in  this  case,  however, 
are  excessively  numerous  and  minute.  But  along 
the  nervures,  and  along  other  lines  which  run  (gen- 
erally) parallel  with  the  front  margin,  and  also  along 
the  whole  margin,  there  are  set  long  leaf-like  scales 
of  very  curious  appearance  and  structure. 

There  are,  however,  other  insects  which  display 
these  or  similar  appendages  in  far  greater  profusion, 
and  in  much  variety  of  form  and  appearance.  In 
the  fissures  of  cliffs  that  border  the  seashore  may 
often  be  found  some  wingless  but  active  insects, 
which  are  endowed  with  the  power  of  leaping  in 
great  perfection.  From  their  hinder  extremity  being 
furnished  with  long  projecting  bristles,  they  are 
sometimes  called  bristle-tails,  but  naturalists  desig- 
nate the  genus  Machilis.  If  you  can  get  one  suffi- 
ciently still  to  examine  it,  you  will  be  delighted  with 
the  lustre  of  its  clothing,  which  appears  dusted  all 
over  with  a  metallic  powder  of  rich  colors — red, 
brown,  orange,  and  yellow,  foiled  by  dull  lead-gray 
in  places. 

If  you  touch  one  of  these  nimble  leapers,  though 
ever  so  slightly,  you  will  see  the  result  on  your 
finger-ends,  for  they  will  be  found  covered  with  a 


INSECTS  1431 

thin  stratum  of  the  finest  dust,  which  displays  the 
colored  metallic  reflection  seen  on  the  insect  By 
touching  one  with  a  plate  of  glass,  instead  of  your 
finger,  you  will  get  the  same  dust  to  adhere  to  this 
transparent  medium,  by  applying  which  to  the  mi- 
croscope you  may  at  once  discern  the  marvelous 
nature  of  the  raiment  with  which  the  little  creature 
is  bedecked. 

The  dust  is  now  seen  to  be  composed  of  myriads 
of  thin  scales,  mostly  regular  and  symmetrical  in 
their  forms,  though  varying  exceedingly  among 
themselves  in  this  respect.  Some  are  heart-shaped, 
some  shovel-shaped,  some  round,  oval,  elliptical, 
half  round,  half  elliptical,  long  and  narrow,  some- 
times irregular  and  unequal,  and  of  various  other 
indescribable  outlines. 

The  beautiful  and  extensive  order  called  Lepidop- 
tera  or  scale-winged,  par  excellence,  including  the 
gay  tribes  of  butterflies  and  moths,  presents  us  with 
many  exceedingly  interesting  varieties  in  these  singu- 
lar coverings. 

Here  are  specimens  from  the  pretty  little  white 
five-plume  moth  (Pterophorus),  so  common  in 
meadows  in  summer.  The  general  shape  of  the 
scales  from  the  body  and  wings  is  that  of  a  willow- 
leaf,  some  singly  pointed,  but  more  cut  at  the  tip 
into  two,  three,  or  four  notches.  Those  from  the 
legs  are  longer  and  slenderer  in  proportion;  and 
among  the  others  from  the  wings  there  are  some 
which  take  the  form  of  hairs,  which  send  forth  one 
or  more  branches  from  one  side,  that  form  a  very 
acute  angle  with  the  main  stem.  The  scales  proper 


THE  STORY   OF  THE   UNIVERSE 

are  all  marked  with  longitudinal  lines,  very  minute 
and  close,  but  they  mostly  bear  a  central  band,  and 
sometimes  a  marginal  one  on  each  side,  of  spots  set  in 
sinuous  lines  like  the  bands  on  a  mackerel's  back; 
these  are  probably  composed  of  pigment-granules. 

The  hairs  with  which  the  bodies  of  moths  are  in- 
vested are  essentially  of  the  same  character  as  the 
scales  which  clothe  their  wings.  Here  are  examples 
from  the  glowing  sides  of  the  abdomen  of  that  richly 
colored  insect,  the  cream-spot  tiger-moth  (Arctia 
villica).  You  see  they  are  simple  scales,  drawn  out 
to  an  inordinate  length  and  great  tenuity;  each  has 
its  quill-like  footstalk,  and  we  may  trace  on  some 
of  them  the  ribs  and  transverse  dotting,  while  here 
we  see  all  intermediate  stages  between  the  slenderest 
hair  and  the  broadly  ovate,  bluntly  pointed  scales 
from  the  wings. 

You  are  familiar,  of  course,  with  the  brilliant 
little  blue  butterfly  (Polyommatus  Alexis)  which 
dances  and  glitters  in  the  sunshine  on  waste  places 
in  June.  Among  the  scales  of  ordinary  form  which 
clothe  the  lovely  little  wings  will  occur  one  here  and 
there  of  a  different  shape  from  the  rest.  Here  you 
may  see  one;  it  is  much  smaller  than  the  average; 
the  footstalk  is  very  long,  and  the  shape  of  the  en- 
tire scale  is  that  of  a  battledoor.  The  ribs  are 
rather  few  and  coarse,  and  they  have  this  peculiarity, 
that  each  rib  swells  at  intervals  into  rounded  dila- 
tations, each  of  which  has  a  minute  black  point  in 
its  centre.  In  some  of  these  battledoor  scales  there 
is,  near  the  lower  part  of  the  expansion,  a  crescent 
of  minute  pigment-grains. 


INSECTS  1433 

Scales  taken  from  the  brilliant  changeable  blue- 
green  patch  in  the  hindwing  of  Papilio  Paris,  a 
fine  Indian  butterfly,  have  an  interesting  appear- 
ance. They  are  simply  pear-shaped  in  outline,  with 
few  longitudinal  ribs  set  far  apart,  and  numerous 
strongly  marked  corrugations  running  across  be- 
tween them.  That  these  are  really  elevations  of  the 
surface  is  well  seen  in  some  scales,  even  with  trans- 
mitted light,  and  a  high  power;  for  the  slopes  of 
the  wrinkles  that  face  the  light  display  the  lustrous 
emerald  reflection  proper  to  the  wing,  while  the 
transmitted  color  of  the  whole  scale  is  a  rich  trans- 
parent red. 

The  dimensions  of  the  scales  do  not  bear  any  cer- 
tain proportion  to  the  size  of  the  insect  which  is 
clothed  with  them;  those  from  the  broad  wings  of 
the  noble  Saturnia  Atlas,  for  example,  eight  or  nine 
inches  in  expanse,  being  exceeded  in  size  by  some 
from  those  of  the  little  British  muslin  moth,  an  inch 
wide. 

The  little  beetles  which  we  are  familiar  with 
under  the  name  of  weevils,  characterized  by  their 
long  slender  snouts,  at  the  end  of  which  they  carry 
curiously  folding  antennae,  and  which  constitute  the 
family  Curculionidae,  are  in  many  cases  clothed  with 
scales,  to  which  they  owe  their  colors  and  patterns. 
Several  of  British  species  display  a  green  or  silvery 
lustre,  which  under  the  microscope  is  seen  to  be 
produced  by  oval  scales.  But  these  are  eclipsed  by 
the  splendor  of  many  tropical  species,  especially 
that  well-known  one  from  South  America  which 
is  called  the  diamond  beetle,  and  scientifically 


THE  STORY  OF  THE   UNIVERSE 

Entimus  imperialis,  from  its  unparalleled  mag- 
nificence. 

A  piece  of  one  of  the  wing-cases  of  this  beetle  is 
gummed  to  the  slide  now  upon  the  stage.  We  look 
at  it  by  reflected  light  with  a  magnifying  power  of 
130  diameters.  We  see  a  black  ground,  on  which 
are  strewn  a  profusion  of  what  look  like  precious 
stones  blazing  in  the  most  gorgeous  lustre.  Topazes, 
sapphires,  amethysts,  rubies,  emeralds  seem  here 
sown  broadcast;  and  yet  not  wholly  without  regu- 
larity, for  there  are  broad  bands  of  the  deep  black 
surface,  where  there  are  no  gems,  and,  though  at 
considerable  diversity  of  angle,  they  do  all  point  with 
more  or  less  precision  in  one  direction,  viz.,  that  of 
the  bands.  These  gems  are  flat  transparent  scales, 
very  regularly  oval  in  form,  for  one  end  is  rather 
more  pointed  than  the  other;  there  is  no  appearance 
of  a  footstalk,  and  by  what  means  they  adhere  I 
know  not;  they  are  evidently  attached  in  some  man- 
ner by  the  smaller  extremity  to  the  velvety  black 
surface  of  the  wing-case.  The  gorgeous  colors  seem 
dependent  in  some  measure  on  the  reflection  of  light 
from  their  polished  surface,  and  to  vary  according 
to  the  angle  at  which  it  is  reflected.  Green,  yellow, 
and  orange  hues  predominate ;  crimson,  violet,  and 
blue  are  rare,  except  upon  the  long  and  narrow 
scales  that  border  the  suture  of  the  wing-cases, 
where  these  colors  are  the  chief  reflected. 

If  you  have  ever  thought  on  the  subject,  you  have 
probably  taken  for  granted  that  the  various  sounds 
produced  by  insects  are  voices  uttered  by  their 
mouths.  But  it  is  not  so.  No  insect  has  anything  ap- 


INSECTS  U35 

preaching  to  a  voice.  Vocal  sounds  are  produced  by 
the  emission  of  air  from  the  lungs  variously  modified 
by  the  organs  of  the  mouth.  But  no  insect  breathes 
through  its  mouth;  no  air  is  expelled  thence  in  a 
single  species;  it  is  a  biting,  or  piercing,  or  sucking 
organ;  an  organ  for  the  taking  of  food,  or  an  organ 
for  offence  or  defence ;  but  never  an  organ  of  sound. 
The  wings  are  in  most  cases  the  immediate  causes  of 
insect  sounds. 

There  is  a  pretty  little  beetle  (Clytus),  not  un- 
common in  summer  in  gardens,  remarkable  for  the 
brilliant  gamboge-yellow  lines  across  its  dark  wing- 
cases,  which  makes  a  curious  squeaking  sound  when 
you  take  it  in  your  hand.  You  think  it  is  crying;  but 
if  you  carefully  examine  it  with  a  lens  while  the 
noise  is  uttered,  you  will  perceive  that  the  cause  is 
the  grating  of  the  thorax  against  the  front  part  of 
the  two  wing-cases.  Several  other  beetles  produce 
similar  sounds  when  alarmed,  by  rubbing  the  other 
end  of  the  wing-sheaths  with  the  tip  of  the  abdomen. 
Many  of  those  genera  which  feed  on  ordure  and  car- 
rion do  this. 

But  the  noisiest  of  all  insects  are  those  of  the 
classes  Orthoptera  and  Homoptera,  the  crickets  and 
grasshoppers,  and  the  treehoppers.  The  locusts  and 
grasshoppers,  it  appears,  make  use  of  their  hindlegs 
in  producing  their  crink.  If  you  look  at  the  grass- 
hopper's leg,  you  will  see  that  the  thigh  is  marked 
with  a  number  of  transverse  overlapping  angular 
plates,  and  that  the  shank  carries  a  series  of  short 
horny  points  along  each  side.  The  insect  when  it 
crinks  brings  the  shank  up  to  its  thigh,  and  rubs 


THE   STORY   OF  THE   UNIVERSE 

both  to  and  fro  against  the  wing-sheaths,  doing  this 
by  turns  with  the  right  and  left  legs,  which  causes 
the  regular  breaks  in  the  sound. 

In  this  case  we  may  without  hesitation  conclude 
that  the  friction  of  the  thigh-plates  and  shank-points 
on  the  rough  edges  of  the  wing-cases  produces  the 
musical  vibration  of  the  tense  membrane,  as  rubbing 
a  wet  glass  with  the  ringer  will  yield  a  loud  musical 
note. 

The  most  elaborate  contrivance  for  the  produc- 
tion of  sounds  among  the  insect  races,  however,  is 
found  among  the  Cicadae,  celebrated  in  classical 
poetry  as  the  very  impersonations  of  song  and  elo- 
quence. 

Probably  at  some  period  of  your  life  you  have 
been  stung  by  a  bee  or  wasp.  I  shall  take  it  for 
granted  that  you  have,  and  that  having  tested  the 
potency  of  these  warlike  insects'  weapons  with  one 
sense,  you  have  a  curiosity  to  examine  them  with 
another.  The  microscope  shall  aid  your  vision  to 
investigate  the  morbific  implement. 

This  is  the  sting  of  the  honey-bee.  It  consists  of  a 
dark  brown  horny  sheath,  bulbous  at  the  base,  but 
suddenly  diminishing,  and  then  tapering  to  a  fine 
point.  This.sheath  is  split  entirely  along  the  inferior 
edge,  and  by  pressure  with  a  needle  I  have  been  en- 
abled to  project  the  two  lancets,  which  commonly  lie 
within  the  sheath.  These  are  two  slender  filaments  of 
the  like  brown  horny  substance,  of  which  the  centre  is 
tubular,  and  carries  a  fluid,  in  which  bubbles  are 
visible.  The  extremity  of  each  displays  a  beautiful 
mechanism,  for  it  is  thinned  away  into  two  thin  blade- 


INSECTS  1437 

edges,  of  which  one  remains  keen  and  knife-like, 
while  the  opposite  edge  is  cut  into  several  saw  teeth 
pointing  backward. 

The  lancets  do  not  appear  to  be  united  with  the 
sheath  in  any  part,  but  simply  to  lie  in  its  groove; 
their  basal  portions  pass  out  into  the  body  behind  the 
sheath,  where  you  see  a  number  of  muscle-bands 
crowded  around  them :  these,  acting  in  various  di- 
rections, and  being  inserted  into  the  lancets  at  va- 
rious points,  exercise  a  complete  control  over  their 
movements,  projecting  or  retracting  them  at  their 
will.  But  each  lancet  has  a  singular  projection  from 
its  back,  which  appears  to  act  in  some  way  as  a  guide 
to  its  motion,  probably  preventing  it  from  slipping 
aside  when  darted  forth,  for  the  bulbous  part  of  the 
sheath,  in  which  these  projections  work,  seems 
formed  expressly  to  receive  them. 

Thus  we  see  an  apparatus  beautifully  contrived  to 
enter  the  flesh  of  an  enemy:  the  two  spears  finely 
pointed,  sharp-edged,  and  saw-toothed,  adapted  for 
piercing,  cutting,  and  tearing;  the  reversed  direction 
of  the  teeth  gives  the  weapon  a  hold  in  the  flesh,  and 
prevents  it  from  being  readily  drawn  out.  Here  is 
an  elaborate  store  of  power  for  the  jactation  of  the 
javelins,  in  the  numerous  muscle-bands ;  here  is  a 
provision  made  for  the  precision  of  the  impulse;  and 
finally,  here  is  a  polished  sheath  for  the  reception  of 
the  weapons  and  their  preservation  when  not  in  ac- 
tual use.  All  this  is  perfect;  but  something  still  was 
wanting  to  render  the  weapons  effective,  and  that 
something  your  experience  has  proved  to  be  sup- 
plied. 


1438  THE   STORY   OF  THE   UNIVERSE 

The  mere  intromission  of  these  points,  incom- 
parably finer  and  sharper  than  the  finest  needle  that 
was  ever  polished  in  a  Sheffield  workshop,  would 
produce  no  result  appreciable  to  our  feelings;  and 
most  surely  would  not  be  followed  by  the  distressing 
agony  attendant  on  the  sting  of  a  bee.  We  must 
look  for  something  more  than  we  have  seen. 

We  need  not  be  long  in  finding  it.  For  here,  at 
the  base  of  the  sheath,  into  which  it  enters  by  a  nar- 
row neck,  lies  a  transparent  pear-shaped  bag,  its  sur- 
face covered  all  over,  but  especially  toward  the  neck, 
with  small  glands  set  transversely.  It  is  rounded 
behind,  where  it  is  entered  by  a  very  long  and 
slender  membraneous  tube,  which,  after  many 
turns  and  windings,  gradually  thickening  and 
becoming  more  evidently  glandular,  terminates 
in  a  blind  end. 

This  is  the  apparatus  for  preparing  and  ejecting  a 
powerful  poison.  The  glandular  end  of  the  slender 
tube  is  the  secreting  organ:  here  the  venom  is  pre- 
pared; the  remainder  of  the  tube  is  a  duct  for  con- 
veying it  to  the  bag,  a  reservoir  in  which  it  is  stored 
for  the  moment  of  use.  By  means  of  the  neck  it  is 
thrown  into  the  groove  at  the  moment  the  sting  is 
projected,  the  same  muscles,  probably,  that  dart  for- 
ward the  weapon  compressing  the  poison-bag  and 
causing  it  to  pour  forth  its  contents  into  the  groove, 
whence  it  passes  on  between  the  two  spears  into  the 
wound  which  they  have  made. 

A  modification  of  this  apparatus  is  found  through- 
out a  very  extensive  order  of  insects — the  Hymenop- 
tera;  but  in  the  majority  of  cases  it  is  not  connected 


INSECTS  1439 

with  purposes  of  warfare.  Wherever  it  occurs  it  is 
always  confined  to  the  female  sex,  or  (as  in  the  case 
of  some  social  insects)  to  the  neuters,  which  are 
undeveloped  females.  When  it  is  not  accompanied 
by  a  poison-reservoir  it  is  ancillary  to  the  deposition 
of  the  eggs,  and  is  hence  called  an  ovipositor,  though 
in  many  cases  it  performs  a  part  much  more  exten- 
sive than  the  mere  placing  of  the  ova. 

A  very  wide  field  of  observation,  and  one  easily 
cultivated,  is  presented  by  the  organs  of  sense  in  the 
insect  races,  and  in  particular  by  those  curious 
jointed  threads  which  proceed  from  the  front  or 
sides  of  the  head,  and  which  are  technically  called 
antennae.  These  may  sometimes  be  confounded  with 
the  palpi;  for  in  a  carnivorous  beetle,  for  instance, 
both  palpi  and  antennae  are  formed  of  a  number  of 
oblong,  polished  hard  joints,  set  end  to  end,  like  beads 
on  a  necklace.  And  it  is  probable  there  may  be  as 
much  community  in  the  function  as  in  the  form  of 
these  two  sets  of  appendages;  that  both  are  the 
seatc  of  some  very  delicate  perceptive  faculty  allied 
to  touch,  but  of  which  we  can  not,  from  igno- 
rance, speak  very  definitely.  It  is  likely,  indeed, 
that  sensations  of  a  very  variable  character  are  per- 
ceived by  them,  according  to  their  form,  the  degree 
of  their  development,  and  the  habits  of  the  species. 
It  is  not  impossible,  judging  from  the  very  great 
diversity  which  we  find  in  the  form  and  structure  of 
these  and  similar  organs  in  this  immense  class  of 
beings,  compared  with  the  uniformity  that  prevails 
in  the  organs  of  sense  bestowed  on  ourselves  and  other 
vertebrate  animals,  that  a  far  wider  sphere  of  per- 


1440  THE   STORY  OF   THE   UNIVERSE 

ception  is  open  to  them  than  to  us.  Perhaps  condi- 
tions that  are  appreciable  to  us  only  by  the  aid  of 
the  most  delicate  instruments  of  modern  science  may 
be  appreciable  to  their  acute  faculties,  and  may  gov- 
ern their  instincts  and  actions.  Among  such  we  may 
mention,  conjecturally,  the  comparative  moisture  or 
dryness  of  the  atmosphere,  delicate  changes  in  its 
temperature,  in  its  density,  the  presence  of  gaseous 
exhalations,  the  proximity  of  solid  bodies  indicated 
by  subtile  vibrations  of  the  air,  the  height  above  the 
earth  at  which  flight  is  performed,  measured  baro- 
metrically, the  various  electrical  conditions  of  the 
atmosphere;  and  perhaps  many  other  physical  diver- 
sities which  can  not  be  classed  under  sight,  sound 
smell,  taste,  or  touch,  and  which  may  be  altogether 
unappreciable,  and  therefore  altogether  inconceiv- 
able, by  us.  It  is  probable,  however,  that  the  an- 
tenna? are  the  organs  in  which  the  sense  of  hearing 
is  specially  seated. 

The  forms  which  are  assumed  by  the  antennae  of 
insects  are  very  diverse;  and  I  can  bring  before  you 
only  a  very  small  selection  out  of  the  mass.  One  of 
the  most  simple  forms  is  that  found  in  many  beetles, 
as  in  this  Carabus,  for  example.  Here  each  antennae 
is  composed  of  eleven  joints,  almost  exactly  alike  and 
symmetrical,  each  joint  a  horny  body  of  apparently 
a  long  oval  shape,  polished  on  the  surface,  but  not 
smooth,  because  covered  with  minute  depressed  lines, 
and  clothed  with  shaggy  hair.  There  is,  however,  a 
slight  illusion  in  the  appearance:  it  seems  as  if  the 
dividing  point  of  the  joints  were,  as  I  have  just  said, 
at  the  termination  of  the  oval,  but  when  we  look 


INSECTS  1441 

closely  we  see  that  the  summit  of  each  oval  is,  as  it 
were,  cut  off  by  a  line,  and  by  comparing  the  basal 
joints  with  the  others,  we  see  that  this  line  is  the  real 
division,  that  the  summit  of  the  oval  really  forms  the 
bottom  of  the  succeeding  joint,  and  that  the  con- 
stricted part  is  no  articulation  at  all.  The  first,  or 
basal  joint  (called  the  scapus) ,  and  the  second  (called 
the  pedicella),  differ  in  form  from  the  rest,  here  but 
slightly,  but  often  considerably.  The  whole  of  the 
remaining  joints  are  together  termed  the  clavola. 

There  is  a  very  extensive  family  of  beetles  known 
as  Lamellicornes,  because  the  antennal  joints  are 
singularly  flattened  and  applied  one  over  the  other 
like  the  leaves  of  a  book  (lamella,  a  leaf). 

But  this  structure  is  seen  to  still  greater  advan- 
tage in  the  much  larger  cockchafer,  so  abundant  in 
May  in  some  seasons.  The  insect  widely  expands 
them,  evidently  to  receive  impressions  from  the  at- 
mosphere; when  alarmed,  they  are  closed  and  with- 
drawn beneath  the  shield  of  the  head,  but  on  the  first 
essay  toward  escape,  or  any  kind  of  forward  move- 
ment, the  leaves  are  widely  opened,  and  then,  after 
an  instant's  pause  to  test  the  perceptions  on  the  sen- 
sorium,  away  it  travels. 

But  much  more  curious  and  beautiful  are  the  an- 
tennae of  many  moths,  which  often  resemble  feathers, 
particularly  in  the  group  Bombycina,  of  which  the 
silkworm  is  an  example;  and  in  the  male  sex,  which 
displays  this  structure  more  than  the  female. 

This  is  the  antenna  of  a  large  and  handsome  and 
not  at  all  uncommon  moth — the  oak  egger  (Lasio- 
campa  quercus).  It  consists  of  about  seventy  joints, 


1442  THE   STORY   OF  THE    UNIVERSE 

so  nearly  alike  in  size  and  outline  that  the  whole 
forms  an  almost  straight  rod,  slightly  tapering  to  the 
tip.  Each  joint,  however,  sends  forth  two  long 
straight  branches,  so  disposed  that  the  pair  make  a 
very  acute  angle,  and  the  whole  double  series  of 
seventy  on  each  side  form  a  deep  narrow  groove. 
These  two  series  of  branches,  being  perfectly  regular 
and  symmetrical,  impart  to  the  antennae  the  aspect 
of  exquisite  feathers. 

It  is,  however,  when  we  examine  the  elements  of 
this  structure  in  detail,  using  moderately  high  powers 
of  enlargement,  that  we  are  struck  with  the  elab- 
orateness of  the  workmanship  bestowed  upon  them. 
Each  of  the  lateral  branches  is  a  straight  rod,  thick 
at  its  origin,  whence  it  tapers  to  a  little  beyond  its 
middle,  and  then  thickens  again  to  its  tip.  Here  two 
horny  spines  project  from  it  obliquely,  one  much 
stouter  than  the  other,  at  such  an  angle  as  nearly  to 
touch  the  tip  of  the  succeeding  branch. 

Besides  this,  each  branch  is  surrounded  throughout 
its  length  with  a  series  of  short  stiff  bristles,  very 
close-set,  projecting  horizontally  (to  the  plane  of  the 
axis  of  the  branch),  and  bent  upward  at  the  end 
candelabrum-fashion.  The  mode  in  whi.ch  they  are 
arranged  is  in  a  short  spiral,  which  makes  about 
forty-five  whorls  or  turns  about  the  axis;  at  least  in 
the  branches  which  are  situated  about  the  middle  of 
the  antenna?;  for  these  diminish  in  length  toward  the 
extremity,  bringing  the  feather  to  a  rather  abrupt 
point. 

The  entire  surface  of  the  branch  gleams  under  re- 
flected light  with  metallic  hues,  chiefly  yellows  and 


INSECTS 

bronzy  greens ;  which  appear  to  depend  on  very  mi- 
nute and  closely  applied  scales  that  overlap  each 
other.  The  main  stem  of  the  feather — that  is,  the  pri- 
mary rod  or  axis — is  somewhat  sparsely  clothed  with 
scales  of  another  kind,  thin,  oblong,  flat  plates, 
notched  at  the  end,  and  very  slightly  attached  by 
means  of  a  minute  stem  at  the  base — the  common 
clothing  scales  of  the  Lepidoptera. 

We  may  acquire  some  glimpse  of  a  notion  why 
this  remarkable  development  of  antennae  is  bestowed 
upon  the  male  sex  of  this  moth  by  an  acquaintance 
with  its  habits.  It  has  been  long  a  practice  with  en- 
tomologists, when  they  have  reared  a  female  moth 
from  the  chrysalis,  to  avail  themselves  of  the  instincts 
of  the  species  to  capture  the  male.  This  sex  has  an 
extraordinary  power  of  discovering  the  female  at  im- 
mense distances,  and  though  perfectly  concealed; 
and  will  crowd  toward  her  from  all  quarters,  enter- 
ing into  houses,  beating  at  windows,  and  even  de- 
scending chimneys,  to  come  at  the  dear  object  of  their 
solicitude.  Collectors  call  this  mode  of  procuring 
the  male  "sembling,"  that  is  "assembling,"  because 
the  insects  of  the  sex  assemble  at  one  point.  It  can 
not  be  practiced  with  all  insects,  nor  even  with  all 
moths ;  those  of  this  family,  Bombycidae,  are  in  gen- 
eral available;  and  of  these,  none  is  more  celebrated 
for  the  habit  than  the  oak  egger.  The  very  individual 
whose  antenna  has  furnished  us  with  this  observation 
was  taken  in  this  way;  for  having  bred  a  female  of 
this  species,  one  evening  I  put  her  into  a  basket  in  my 
parlor.  One  male,  the  same  evening,  came  dashing 
into  the  kitchen;  but  the  next  day,  soon  after  noon, 


THE   STORY   OF  THE   UNIVERSE 

in  the  hot  sunshine  of  August,  no  fewer  than  four 
more  males  came  rapidly  in  succession  to  the  parlor 
window,  which  was  a  little  open,  and,  after  beating 
about  the  panes  a  few  minutes,  found  their  way  in, 
and  made  straightway  for  the  basket,  totally  regard- 
less of  their  own  liberty. 

It  must  be  manifest  to  you  that  some  extraordinary 
sense  is  bestowed  upon  these  moths,  or  else  some  or- 
dinary and  well-known  sense  in  extraordinary  devel- 
opment. It  may  be  smell;  it  may  be  hearing;  but 
neither  odor  nor  sound,  perceptible  by  our  dull  facul- 
ties, is  given  forth  by  the  females;  the  emanation  is 
far  too  subtile  to  produce  any  vibrations  on  our  sen- 
sorium,  and  yet  sufficiently  potent,  and  widely  dif- 
fused, to  call  these  males  from  their  distant  retreats  in 
the  hedges  and  woods. 

The  male  gnat  presents  in  its  antennae  a  pair  of 
plumes  of  equal  beauty,  but  of  a  totally  different 
character.  The  pattern  here  is  one  of  exceeding 
lightness  and  grace. 

In  the  tribe  of  two-winged  insects,  which  we  term, 
par  excellence,  flies  (Muscadae) ,  the  antennae  are  of 
peculiar  structure.  The  common  house-fly  shall  give 
us  a  good  example.  Here,  in  front  of  the  head,  is  a 
shell-like  concavity,  divided  into  two  by  a  central 
ridge.  Just  at  the  summit  of  this  projection  are  the  two 
antennae,  originating  close  together,  and  diverging  as 
they  proceed.  Each  antenna  consists  of  three  joints, 
of  which  the  first  is  very  minute,  the  second  is  a  re- 
versed cone,  and  the  third,  which  is  large,  thick,  and 
ovate,  is  bent  abruptly  downward  immediately  in 
front  of  the  concavity.  From  the  upper  part  of  this 


INSECTS  1445 

third  joint  projects  obliquely  a  stiff  bristle  or  style, 
which  tapers  to  a  fine  point.  It  is  densely  hairy 
throughout;  and  is  more  beset  with  longer  hairs  on 
two  opposite  sides,  which  decrease  regularly  in  length 
from  the  base,  making  a  wide  and  pointed  plume. 

Such  are  a  few  examples  of  what  are  presumed  to 
be  the  ears  of  insects ;  let  us  now  turn  our  attention  to 
their  eyes.  And  we  can  scarcely  select  a  more  bril- 
liant, or  a  larger  example,  than  is  presented  by  this 
fine  dragon-fly  (^Eshna),  which  I  just  now  caught  as 
it  was  hawking  to  and  fro  in  my  garden.  How  gor- 
geously beautiful  are  these  two  great  hemispheres 
that  almost  compose  the  head,  each  shining  with  a 
soft  satiny  lustre  of  azure  hue,  surrounded  by  olive- 
green,  and  marked  with  undefined  black  spots,  which 
change  their  place  as  you  move  the  insect  round! 

Each  of  these  hemispheres  is  a  compound  eye.  I 
put  the  insect  in  the  stage-forceps,  and  bring  a  low 
power  to  bear  upon  it  with  reflected  light.  You  see 
an  infinite  number  of  hexagons,  of  the  most  accurate 
symmetry  and  regularity  of  arrangement.  Into  those 
which  are  in  the  centre  of  the  field  of  view,  the  eye 
can  penetrate  far  down,  and  you  perceive  that  they 
are  tubes;  of  those  which  recede  from  the  centre, 
you  discern  more  and  more  of  the  sides;  while,  by 
delicate  adjustment  of  the  focus,  you  can  see  that 
each  tube  is  not  open,  but  is  covered  with  a  convex 
arch  of  some  glassy  medium  polished  and  transparent 
as  crystal.  There  are,  according  to  the  computations 
of  accurate  naturalists,  not  fewer  than  24,000  of  these 
convex  lenses  in  the  two  eyes  of  such  a  large  species 
of  dragon-fly  as  this.  Every  one  of  these  24,000 


1446  THE   STORY   OF  THE   UNIVERSE 

bodies  represents  a  perfect  eye;  every  one  is  fur- 
nished with  all  the  apparatus  and  combinations  req- 
uisite for  distinct  vision;  and  there  is  no  doubt  that 
the  dragon-fly  looks  through  them  all.  In  order  to 
explain  this,  I  must  enter  into  a  little  technical  ex- 
planation of  the  anatomy  of  the  organs,  as  they  have 
been  demonstrated  by  careful  dissection. 

The  glassy  convex  plate  or  facet  in  front  of  each 
hexagon  is  a  cornea,  or  corneule,  as  it  has  been  called. 
Behind  each  cornea,  instead  of  a  crystalline  lens, 
there  descends  a  slender  transparent  pyramid,  whose 
base  is  the  cornea,  and  whose  apex  points  toward  the 
interior,  where  it  is  received  and  embraced  by  a 
translucent  cup,  answering  to  the  vitreous  humor. 
This,  in  its  turn,  is  surrounded  by  another  cup, 
formed  by  the  expansion  of  a  nervous  filament  aris- 
ing from  the  ganglion  on  the  extremity  of  the  optic 
nerve,  a  short  distance  from  the  brain.  Each  lens- 
like  pyramid,  with  its  vitreous  cup  and  nervous  fila- 
ment, is  completely  surrounded  and  isolated  by  a 
coat  (the  choroid)  of  dark  pigment,  except  that  there 
is  a  minute  orifice  or  pupil  behind  the  cornea,  where 
the  rays  of  light  enter  the  pyramid,  and  one  at  the 
apex  of  the  latter,  where  they  reach  the  fibres  of  the 
optic  nerve. 

Each  *  cornea  is  a  lens  with  a  perfect  magnifying 
power.  The  focus  of  each  cornea  has  been  ascer- 
tained by  similar  experiments  to  be  exactly  equal  to 
the  length  of  the  pyramid  behind  it,  so  that  the  image 
produced  by  the  rays  of  light  proceeding  from 
any  external  object,  and  refracted  by  the  convex 
cornea,  will  fall  accurately  upon  the  sensitive  termi- 


INSECTS  1447 

nation  of  the  optic  nerve-filament  placed  there  to 
receive  it. 

The  rays  which  pass  through  the  several  pyramids 
are  prevented  from  mingling  with  each  other  by  the 
isolating  sheath  of  dark  pigment;  and  no  rays  except 
those  which  pass  along  the  axis  of  each  pyramid  can 
reach  the  optic  nerve ;  all  the  rest  being  absorbed  in 
the  pigment  of  the  sides.  Hence  it  is  evident  that  as 
no  two  corneae  on  the  rounded  surface  of  the  com- 
pound eye  can  have  the  same  axis,  no  two  can  transmit 
a  ray  of  light  from  the  very  same  point  of  any  object 
looked  at;  while,  as  each  of  the  composite  eyes  is 
immovable,  except  as  the  whole  head  moves,  the  com- 
bined action  of  the  whole  24,000  lenses  can  present 
to  the  sensorium  but  the  idea  of  a  single,  undistorted, 
unconfused  object,  probably  on  somewhat  of  the  same 
principle  by  which  the  convergence  of  the  rays  of 
light  entering  our  two  eyes  gives  us  but  a  single 
stereoscopic  picture. 

The  soft  blue  color  of  this  dragon-fly's  eyes — as 
also  the  rich  golden  reflections  seen  on  the  eyes  of 
other  insects,  as  the  whameflies,  and  many  other  Dip- 
tera — is  not  produced  by  the  pigment  which  I  have 
alluded  to,  but  is  a  prismatic  reflection  from  the 
corneae. 

You  would  suppose  that,  having  24,000  eyes,  the 
dragon-fly  was  pretty  well  furnished  with  organs  of 
vision  and  surely  would  need  no  more ;  but  you  would 
be  mistaken.  It  has  three  other  eyes  of  quite  another 
character. 

If  you  look  at  the  commissure  or  line  of  junction  of 
the  two  compound  eyes  on  the  summit  of  the  head, 

H  VOL.   IV. 


1448  THE   STORY   OF   THE    UNIVERSE 

you  will  see  just  in  front  of  the  point  where  they  sep- 
arate and  their  front  outlines  diverge  a  minute  cres- 
cent-shaped cushion  of  a  pale-green  color,  at  each 
angle  of  which  is  a  minute  antenna.  Close  to  the  base 
of  each  antenna  there  is  set,  in  the  black  skin  of  the 
head  that  divides  the  green  crescent  from  the  com- 
pound eyes,  a  globose  polished  knob  of  crystal-like 
substance,  much  like  the  "bull's-eyes"  or  hemispheres 
of  solid  glass  that  are  set  in  a  ship's  deck  to  enlighten 
the  side-cabins.  On  the  front  side  of  the  crescentic 
cushion  there  is  a  third  similar  glassy  sphere,  but 
much  larger  than  the  two  lateral  ones.  What  are 
these  three  spherules? 

They  are  eyes,  in  no  important  respect  differing 
from  the  individuals  which  compose  the  compound 
masses  except  that  they  are  isolated.  The  shining 
glassy  hemisphere  is  a  cornea  of  hard  transparent 
substance,  behind  which  is  situated  a  spherical  lens, 
lodged  in  a  kind  of  cup  formed  by  an  expansion  of 
the  optic  nerve,  and  which  is  surrounded  by  a  col- 
ored pigment-layer.  You  may  study  these  simple 
eyes,  or  stemmata,  as  they  are  called,  in  many  other 
insects,  though  they  are  not  so  universally  present  as 
the  compound  eyes.  On  the  forehead  of  the  honey- 
bee they  are  well  seen,  as  three  black  shining  globules, 
placed,  as  in  the  dragon-fly,  in  a  triangle. 


FAIRY   FLIES  1449 


FAIRY  FLIES.— FRED.   ENOCK 

IF  it  were  possible  to  obtain  a  reply  from  all  living 
naturalists  as  to  what  first  attracted  their  atten- 
tion to  insect  life,  I  venture  to  think  that  seventy- 
five  per  cent  or  more  of  the  replies  would  be:  "The 
first  sight  of  a  living  butterfly."  How  many  of  us 
(no  matter  what  our  specialty  may  now  be)  can  look 
back  to  that  time  when,  perhaps,  a  tortoise-shell 
flaunted  its  beauty  before  our  youthful  eyes,  and  we 
were  drawn  to  it  and  fascinated  by  its  gorgeous  color, 
as  it  delicately  sipped  the  nectar  from  a  dandelion 
or  thistle,  gently  opening  and  shutting  its  wings, 
spreading  them  as  wide  as  possible  so  that  every  part 
should  be  seen!  The  colors  and  markings  flashed  be- 
fore our  enraptured  gaze,  and  while  we  were  held 
captive  by  its  beauty,  another  still  more  beautiful  but- 
terfly— the  peacock — sailed  past  and  alighted  close 
to  the  first,  riveting  our  attention  by  the  marvelously 
lovely  "eyes"  on  its  wings;  and  again  another — this 
time  a  red  admiral — in  full  sail  bore  down  upon  us, 
opened  fire,  and  we  surrendered,  swearing  allegiance 
for  evermore  to  Atalanta  and  all  her  crew.  Few  boys 
could  stand  still  and  not  be  affected  or  influenced 
by  such  beauty.  Such  then  has  been,  and  will  be,  the 
foundation  of  our  naturalists — "butterfly  hunters" 
first,  specialists  later  on. 

As  we  are  briefly  running  through  the  Hymenop- 
tera  our  difficulties  seem  to  increase,  for  with  the 
next  division,  the  Chalcididae,  we  hardly  know  what 


1450  THE  STORY   OF  THE   UNIVERSE 

to  do,  or  to  whom  we  can  turn  for  assistance  in  nam- 
ing these  brilliantly  spangled  green  and  gold  col- 
ored flies,  whose  "name  is  legion."  The  laborers  in 
this  field  are  indeed  few,  so  much  so  that  there  is  not 
a  "specialist"  even  at  the  Natural  History  Museum, 
South  Kensington. 

Let  us  go  back  to  one  of  those  "neglected  families" 
which  have  received  but  small  attention.  One  reason 
for  this  want  of  attention  is,  no  doubt,  because  of  the 
extreme  smallness  of  the  members  of  this  family, 
the  largest  being  not  more  than  one-twentieth  of  an 
inch  long,  whereas  the  smallest  is  less  than  one- 
eighty-fifth  of  an  inch  from  head  to  tail.'  These  in- 
sect atoms  have  been  classed  among  the  Chalcididae 
by  Haliday — the  originator  of  the  Mymaridae — who 
first  noticed  them  in  1833.  Since  that  date  Westwood 
has  placed  them  among  the  Proctotrupidae;  and  now 
Ashmead — author  of  American  Proctotripidae — has 
decided  in  favor  of  Haliday's  arrangement,  and  in 
this  I  fully  concur. 

The  fairy  flies  are,  without  doubt,  among  the 
many  wonderful  parasitic  Hymenoptera,  the  most 
admirable  in  their  exquisite  structure,  as  well  as  in 
their  habits  and  economy.  All  the  species  are  egg 
parasites,  and  each  species  has  its  peculiar  taste,  se- 
lecting with  unerring  instinct  the  right  kind  of  egg 
— generally  that  of  an  injurious  insect — in  which  the 
female  lays  one  of  its  own  eggs,  which  in  due  time 
hatches  or  develops  into  an  active  maggot.  This 
maggot  feeds  upon  the  contained  fluids,  and  finds 
sufficient  nutriment  to  bring  it  to  full  size,  when  it 
assumes  the  pupal  stage.  The  fly,  being  matured. 


FAIRY   FLIES  1451 

bites  out  a  round  piece  of  the  eggshell  large  enough 
to  allow  it  to  escape.  The  most  noticeable  character 
in  the  fairy  flies  is  the  transverse  line  across  the  face 
a  little  above  the  insertion  of  the  antennae.  The 
wings  are  devoid  of  all  wing  nerves,  for  the  sub- 
costal is  so  short  and  stumpy  that  the  wing  looks  per- 
fectly free.  Both  the  upper  and  under  surfaces  of  the 
wings  are  covered  with  minute  hairs,  and  the  mar- 
gins of  both  wings  are  surrounded  by  long  hairlike 
ciliae. 

Owing  to  the  kindness  of  the  authorities  of  Dub- 
lin Museum,  I  have  been  permitted  to  make  a  most 
exhaustive  and  critical  examination  of  Haliday's 
type  collection  of  British  Mymaridae,  and  though  the 
hand  of  time  and  those  of  others  have  materially  in- 
terfered with  their  original  arrangement,  the  result 
has  been  most  satisfactory  to  me.  Although  one  or 
two  of  the  most  interesting  types  are  absent,  I  have 
been  enabled  to  re-establish  Haliday's  genus  Panthus, 
which  certain  compilers  had,  for  no  apparent  reaso'n, 
ignored.  I  found  two  specimens  still  bearing  the 
old  labels,  and  after  long  and  critical  microscopic  ex- 
amination I  saw  that  both  were  distinct  from  any 
others.  I  applied  for  and  obtained  permission  to 
remove  the  carded  specimens,  and  remount  them  in 
Canada  balsam.  This  was  successfully  done,  and  on 
making  a  photo-micrograph  the  peculiar  generic 
characters  were  brought  out  most  distinctly.  Some 
naturalists  appear  to  imagine  that  a  pocket  lens  will 
be  sufficient  to  identify  these  species,  but  in  an  insect 
which  is  but  a  fiftieth  or  an  eightieth  of  an  inch  long 
it  is  of  absolute  importance  that  every  joint  and  detail 


1452  THE  STORY  OF  THE  UNIVERSE 

should  be  examined  under  the  microscope,  and  the 
relative  proportion  of  each  joint  of  the  antennae  be 
compared  with  closely  allied  species — just  as  they 
are  with  all  large  Hymenoptera.  The  curve,  too,  of 
the  delicate  wings  is  a  most  important  feature  which 
must  not  be  hurried  over.  This  point  leads  me  to 
speak  of  the  immense  superiority  of  photo-micro- 
graphs over  drawings  of  these  fairy  flies.  No  matter 
how  exact  an  enthusiastic  naturalist  may  be  in  his 
endeavors,  it  is  a  physical  impossibility  for  any  one 
to  follow  out  and  reproduce  the  exact  curve  of  these 
microscopic  wings;  and  as  the  flies  when  properly 
prepared  and  "set"  in  Canada  balsam  lend  them- 
selves peculiarly  to  photo-micrography,  it  is  wise  to 
take  advantage  of  this.  The  details  can  afterward 
be  drawn  to  a  much  larger  scale.  It  is  my  intention 
to  do  this  with  every  species  which  I  have  collected 
during  the  past  twenty-five  years,  and  of  which  I 
have  a  very  large  number,  far  exceeding  those 
known  to  science.  The  illustrations  accompany- 
ing this  short  article  will,  I  think,  show  what  ex- 
ceedingly good  subjects  the  fairy  flies  are  for 
photo-micrographs. 

Since  Haliday's  arrangement  of  the  British  My- 
maridae,  elucidated  by  Francis  Walker,  no  new  spe- 
cies have  been  recorded,  the  genera  numbering 
eleven,  the  species,  thirty-five,  as  follows,  viz.: 

Ooctonus,  four  species  Mymar,  one  species 

Gonatocerus,  five  species  Cosmocoma,  eight  species 

Alaptus,  two  species  Caraphractus,  one  species 

Litus,  one  species  Anaphes,  seven  species 

Eustochus,  one  species  Anagrvs,  four  species 

Camptoptera^  one  species 


FAIRY   FLIES  14:53 

• 

Of  these  I  have  found  representatives  of  all,  and  a 
few  notes  may  not  be  uninteresting  to  those  who  de- 
sire to  search  for  these  fairy  flies. 

Ooctonus.  Of  this  genus  I  have  not  found  very 
many  specimens.  It  is  thick-set,  and  least  like  a 
fairy.  Unfortunately,  Haliday  did  not  publish  any 
detailed  account  of  his  captures,  but  from  the  fact 
of  his  naming  one  (plentifully  represented  in  his 
collection)  Ooctonus  Kemipterus,  it  is  just  possible 
it  may  be  parasitic  in  eggs  of  bugs. 

Gonatocerus  is,  perhaps,  as  plentiful  as  any  in  the 
London  district.  It  is  a  constant  visitor  to  my  gar- 
den, though  I  have  failed  to  discover  its  nidus. 

Alaptus  minimus  and  fusculus  have  long  been 
known  to  me.  The  first-named  is  not  more  than  one- 
seventy-second  of  an  inch  long,  with  a  sessile  abdo- 
men. Its  wings  are  somewhat  hatchet  shaped,  with 
peculiar  enlargements  at  the  base  of  the  inner  mar- 
gin. The  lower  wings  have  a  crimped  appearance, 
arising  from  the  mackerel  marking.  This,  and  in 
fact  all  the  family,  are  to  be  found  running  up  the 
glass  in  a  greenhouse,  especially  on  the  window  fac- 
ing east.  Alaptus  fusculus  is  one  of  the  first  to  ap- 
pear in  spring — its  peculiar  jerky  gait  will  at  once 
reveal  its  identity.  Of  this  species  I  have  bred  hun- 
dreds from  the  eggs  of  a  psocid  (Stenopscocus  cru- 
ciatus),  an  insect  much  like  a  common  aphis,  but 
very  active  and  shy,  having  a  decided  objection  to 
being  watched.  But  "all  good  things  come  to  those 
who  know  how  to  wait,"  and  wait  he  must  for  hours, 
days,  months,  and  years  before  the  life  history  of  a 
single  species  is  made  out.  Haliday  mentions  that 


1464  THE  STORY   OF  THE   UNIVERSE 

Polynema  (Cosmocoma)  destroys  the  eggs  of  the  cab- 
bage butterfly.  I  read  this  twenty-five  years  ago,  but 
I  have  never  yet  found  one  egg  "struck."  Stenops- 
cocus  lays  its  eggs  on  the  leaves  of  various  shrubs 
and  trees.  I  have  found  them  on  lime,  oak,  syca- 
more, hawthorn,  and  ivy.  They  are  laid  in  patches 
of  ten  to  twenty,  the  female  psocid  carefully  weav- 
ing a  silken  covering  in  an  endeavor  to  protect 
them  from  the  attacks  of  enemies;  but,  alas!  who 
would  imagine  a  fairy  fly  to  be  an  enemy?  Yet  its 
microscopic  size  enables  it  to  pass  unnoticed,  and 
also  permits  its  passing  beneath  the  silken  screen, 
and,  once  there,  woe  betide  the  psocid's  eggs!  for 
the  busy  fairy  taps  one  with  her  clubbed  antenna, 
mounts  to  the  summit,  and  then  lets  down  the  ovi- 
positor until  the  barbed  tip  touches  the  surface  of 
the  fresh-laid  egg  (it  must  be  fresh).  Now  by  care- 
fully focusing  a  good  magnifier,  we  can  observe 
the  fairy  taking  a  firm  hold  of  the  surface  of  the 
egg  with  the  two  curved  tips  of  each  of  her  ex- 
quisitely formed  toes!  Next  we  note  that  pressure 
is  being  put  upon  the  barbed  ovipositor.  The  an- 
tenna? are  pressed  firmly  to  the  surface,  and  impress 
the  observer  with  the  fact  that  some  very  serious 
business  is  in  hand.  Eleven  minutes  have  passed 
without  any  sign  of  a  move,  when  just  after  eleven 
and  a  quarter  the  ovipositor  positively  bumps 
through  the  shell.  There  is  another  serious  pause, 
and  then  up  go  the  clubbed  antennae,  and  very  care- 
fully the  ovipositor  is  withdrawn  until  it  slips  back 
between  the  sheaths.  The  fairy  turns  round,  and 
with  saliva  from  her  mouth  seals  up  the  incision. 


FAIRY   FLIES  1465 

Another  egg  is  ascended,  bored,  and  stored  with  an 
egg — and  so  on  until  the  whole  batch  of  twenty  has 
been  struck,  and  all  chance  of  any  psocid  emerging 
utterly  ruined.  I  kept  the  first  batch  of  eggs  which 
I  had  seen  struck  in  October  until  the  following 
year,  when,  as  the  warm  days  of  April  arrived,  I' 
carefully  examined  them,  until  one  eventful  day  I 
observed  one  of  the  eggs  had  a  tiny  hole  in  it.  On 
placing  it  under  the  microscope  I  saw  a  pair  of 
mandibles  busily  at  work  nibbling  away  the  egg- 
shell, until  at  last  the  hole  was  large  enough  to  ad- 
mit of  the  head  being  thrust  through.  After  many 
efforts  the  antennae  were  freed,  followed  by  the  first 
pair  of  legs;  then,  with  this  additional  leverage  at 
command,  the  thorax  was  lifted  out,  the  second  pair 
of  legs  and  part  of  the  wings  following,  and  after 
much  apparently  painful  effort  the  third  and  last 
pair  of  legs  was  withdrawn,  enabling  the  fairy  to 
walk  out,  and  to  free  those  most  exquisitely  deli- 
cate wings  without  a  hitch.  Now,  taking  a  firm  grip 
on  the  empty  eggshell,  the  fairy  went  through  her 
toilet.  Not  a  hair  or  spine  escaped  attention — each 
and  every  part  of  this  microscopic  marvel  received 
the  utmost  attention;  every  hair  forming  the  lovely 
marginal  fringe  was  brushed  out  and  arranged  in 
exact  order.  The  wings  were  raised  several  times  to 
try  them,  and  then  away  this  atom  of  perfection  flew. 
Since  my  first  seeing  the  ovipositor  of  a  fairy  fly  I 
have  dissected  many  struck  eggs,  and  in  less  than  a 
minute  had  the  germ  (laid  by  the  fairy  fly)  under 
my  microscope,  and  watched  it  grow,  and  the  cells 
divide  again  and  again  in  such  a  marvelous  manner 


1456  THE  STORY   OF  THE   UNIVERSE 

that  I  have  been  lost  in  wonderment  or  simply  over- 
come. Flesh  and  blood  is  not  strong  enough  to  carry 
on  such  watchings  too  long,  but  the  fascination  is 
so  great  that  time  after  time  have  I  watched  the 
mysterious  changes  taking  place — various  organs  be- 
ing formed  under  my  eyes — the  active  larva  gradu- 
ally losing  all  its  activity  until  it  appears  in  pupal 
form,  and  then  new  limbs  and  organs  seem  to  be 
evolved  from  nothing  at  all. 

The  next  genus,  Litus,  is  a  peculiar  one.  Its  one 
representative,  Litus  cynipseus,  much  resembles  a 
flea  in  color  and  form.  It  is  the  only  fairy  fly  that 
takes  its  time  in  walking.  I  have  never  seen  it  in 
a  hurry,  neither  have  I  ever  seen  the  male — and  the 
female  is  not  a  plentiful  species. 

Eustochus  is  distinguished  by  having  a  deeply 
marked  suture  across  the  club  of  the  antennae,  and 
though  Haliday  mentions  but  one  species,  I  have 
found  over  a  dozen;  in  fact,  of  this  genus  I  can 
always  find  specimens  anywhere — on  windows,  in 
greenhouses,  in  railway  carriages,  besides  sweeping 
them  up  from  grass  and  all  kinds  of  herbage.  I 
have  also  seen  and  caught  them  flying,  and  have  ob- 
tained many  specimens  from  spiders'  webs. 

Mymar  pulchellus  is,  without  doubt,  the  most 
extraordinary  of  the  whole  family.  My  first  speci- 
men I  caught  in  a  spider's  web  when  living  near 
Finsbury  Park.  It  was  very  much  held  by  viscid 
globules,  but  after  many  hours'  work  appeared  in 
Canada  balsam  a  splendid  mount.  No  insect  has  ex- 
ercised my  power  of  thought  more  than  this  one; 
but  its  life  history  remains  a  mystery  still,  though  I 


FAIRY   FLIES  1457 

imagine  I  am  within  measurable  distance  of  discov- 
ering its  nidus.  The  posterior  wings  are  abnormal 
— mere  bristles — and  yet  they  are  of  immense  service 
when  hooked  into  the  anterior  ones,  the  black  specks 
just  before  the  tips  of  these  bristle-like  wings  being 
the  three  booklets. 

The  next  representative,  Cosmocoma,  is  Haliday's 
Polynema,  which,  he  states,  affects  the  eggs  of  the 
cabbage  butterfly.  C.  fumipennis  is  of  the  most 
strikingly  beautiful  character.  I  once  saw  the  male 
of  this,  but  it  was  on  the  glass  outside  the  greenhouse, 
while  I  was  inside  and  the  door  was  locked.  My 
feelings  at  that  moment  can  be  better  imagined  than 
described. 

Caraphractus  cinctus  has  received  a  good  deal  of 
attention  and  notoriety  from  the  fact  that  in  1862 
Sir  John  Lubbock  discovered  that  it  was  aquatic  in 
its  habits,  using  its  wings  for  swimming  under  water. 
It  was  christened  Polynema  natans  by  the  worthy 
discoverer  of  its  natatorial  habits;  but  in  1896  it 
fell  to  my  lot  to  prove  it  to  be  identical  with  Hali- 
day's Caraphractus. 

Anaphes  is  found  in  almost  any  garden,  and  is  fre- 
quently confounded  with  Eustochus,  but  the  solid 
club  is  an  unfailing  character.  It  is  also  somewhat 
larger  than  Eustochus. 

Anagarus  contains  many  species  of  very  delicate 
yellow  fairy  flies,  always  present  in  gardens  and 
about  ponds — in  fact,  almost  everywhere.  I  have 
been  again  fortunate  in  discovering  the  life  history 
of  several  species  belonging  to  this  genus.  One  is 
parasitic  in  eggs  of  dragon-flies,  and  three  others  in 


1458  THE   STORY   OF  THE   UNIVERSE 

different  kinds  of  eggs  of  frog-hoppers,  which  have 
for  over  thirty  years  eluded  my  search. 

One  more  genus  remains  to  be  noticed,  and  it  is 
the  most  fairy-like  of  all  the  Mymaridae,  viz.,  Camp- 
toptera  papaveris.  It  is  the  smallest  of  the  family, 
the  female  being  but  one-eighty-fifth  of  an  inch  long. 
Mystery  surrounds  this  gem,  and  yet  it  is  most  plenti- 
ful in  certain  localities.  The  male,  of  which  I  have 
only  taken  two  specimens,  measures  just  one-ninety- 
second  of  an  inch  from  head  to  tail,  and  yet  is  ab- 
solutely perfect  in  every  part. 

INSECT  TRANSFORMA- 
TIONS.—ANDREW  WILSON 

MOST  people  are  aware,  as  a  piece  of  common- 
place knowledge,  that  many  animals,  before 
arriving  at  their  mature  or  adult  state,  undergo  'a 
series  of  changes  in  form,  of  a  more  or  less  complete 
character.  To  such  a  series  of  changes  the  naturalist 
applies  the  term  "metamorphosis" ;  and  the  study  of 
the  disguises  which  an  animal  may  in  this  way  suc- 
cessively assume  forms  one  of  the  most  interesting 
and  fascinating  subjects  that  can  attract  the  notice  of 
the  observer. 

The  great  insect-class  presents  us  with  the  most  fa- 
miliar examples  of  these  changes,  and  the  butterflies 
and  moths  exemplify  metamorphosis  in  its  most  typi- 
cal aspect.  Thus  we  know  that  from  the  egg  of  the 
butterfly,  deposited  by  the  short-lived  parent  upon 
the  leaves  of  plants,  a  crawling  grub-like  creature  is 
first  developed.  This  form  we  name  the  "larva"  or 


INSECT  TRANSFORMATIONS  1459 

''caterpillar" ;  and  if  we  might  fail  to  recognize  its 
relationship  to  the  bright  denizen  of  the  air  as  far 
as  outward  appearance  is  concerned,  we  might  also  be 
at  a  loss  to  reconcile  its  internal  structure  with  that 
of  the  perfect  butterfly.  Thus  the  latter  is  winged ; 
possesses  a  mouth  and  digestive  system,  adapted  for 
the  reception  and  assimilation  of  flower-juices;  and 
wholly  differs  in  structure  and  habits  from  its  worm- 
like  progeny.  The  caterpillar  is  provided  with  a 
mouth  furnished  with  jaws,  and  adapted  for  biting  or 
mastication ;  its  digestive  system  presents  a  type  dif- 
fering widely  from  that  of  the  perfect  form;  and  its 
crawling^  terrestrial  habits  appear  in  strong  contrast 
to  the  light  and  ethereal  movements  of  its  parent. 

The -life  of  this  larva  may  be  accurately  described 
as  one  devoted  solely  to  its  nourishment.  Its  entire 
existence,  while  in  the  caterpillar  state,  is  one  long 
process  of  continuous  eating  and  devouring.  By 
means  of  its  jaws  it  nips  and  destroys  the  young  leaves 
of  plants,  much  to  the  gardener's  annoyance;  and  so 
rapidly  does  its  body  increase  in  size,  that  the  first 
skin  with  which  its  body  is  provided  soon  cracks  and 
bursts  like  a  tight-fitting  coat,  and  a  process  of  moult- 
ing ensues.  As  the  result  of  this  process  the  larva 
emerges,  clad  in  a  new  skin,  adapted  to  the  increased 
size  of  its  body.  This  second  skin  may  similarly  be- 
come inadequate  to  accommodate  its  ever-increasing 
growth,  and  a  second  process  of  moulting  produces  in 
turn  a  new  investment.  In  this  way  the  caterpillar 
may  change  its  coat  many  times — twenty-one  moult- 
ings  have  been  counted  in  the  development  of  the 
May-flies — and  on  arriving  at  the  close  of  its  larval 


14:60  THE   STORY   OF   THE   UNIVERSE 

stage  of  existence,  may  present  a  very  great  increase 
in  size,  as  compared  with  the  dimensions  it  presented 
at  the  beginning  of  its  life. 

But,  sooner  or  later,  the  caterpillar  appears  to 
sicken,  and  to  become  quiescent.  Its  former  state  of 
activity  is  exchanged  for  one  of  lethargy,  from  which 
it  awakes  to  begin  an  operation  of  a  novel  and  differ- 
ent nature  from  that  in  which  it  has  been  previously 
engaged.  It  begins. to  spin  a  delicate  silky  thread  by 
means  of  a  special  apparatus,  situated  in  the  head, 
and  which  consists  of  silk-glands  and  of  an  organ 
named  the  "spinneret."  Within  the  silken  case  or 
"cocoon"  which  it  thus  constructs  with  the  thread 
of  the  spinneret,  the  caterpillar-body  is  soon  inclosed ; 
the  first  stage  of  its  existence  comes  to  an  end ;  and  the 
second  or  cocoon  stage,  marked  by  outward  quies- 
cence and  apparent  rest,  becomes  known  to  us  as  that 
of  the  "pupa,"  "chrysalis,"  or  "nymph." 

Although  outwardly  still,  and  although  all  the 
former  activity  appears  to  have  been  exchanged  for 
a  state  of  dull  repose,  changes  of  active  kind,  and  of 
marvelous  extent,  are  meanwhile  proceeding  within 
the  cocoon  or  pupa-case.  The  elements  of  the  cater- 
pillar's form  are  being  gradually  disintegrated  or 
broken  down,  and  built  up  anew  in  the  form  and 
image  of  the  adult  butterfly.  Old  textures  and  gar- 
ments are  being  exchanged  for  new  ones;  particle  by 
particle  the  outward  and  inward  structures  of  the 
larva  are  being  replaced  by  others  proper  to  the  ma- 
ture being;  and  in  due  course,  and  after  a  longer  or 
shorter  period,  the  cocoon  is  ruptured,  and  the  per- 
fect form  emerges — a  bright  and  beautiful  creature, 


INSECT  TRANSFORMATIONS  1461 

furnished  with  wings  and  active  senses,  and  rejoic- 
ing in  the  exercise  of  its  new-born  functions  amid 
the  sunlight  and  the  flowers. 

Such  is  an  outline  of  the  familiar  process  by  which 
the  larva  or  caterpillar  of  the  butterfly  becomes  trans- 
formed or  developed,  to  form  the  "imago"  or  perfect 
and  adult  form.  And  if  we  review  the  stages  exem- 
plified in  the  process,  we  shall  be  able  to  detect  in 
each  an  obvious  harmony  and  correspondence  both 
with  the  preceding  and  with  the  succeeding  stage. 
Thus  we  find  that  the  life  of  the  perfect  and  mature 
insect  is  at  the  best  of  a  comparatively  short  and  tran- 
sient nature,  and  its  energies  are  directed  chiefly  to 
reproduction — to  the  deposition  of  eggs,  from  which 
new  individuals  will,  in  due  course,  -be  reproduced. 
The  larval  stage,  on  the  contrary,  is  devoted  to  nutri- 
tion ;  to  the  laying  up,  as  it  were,  of  a  store  of  nour- 
ishment, sufficient  to  last  throughout  the  lifetime  of 
the  being,  and  to  sustain  it  while  its  adult  functions 
are  being  performed. 

Indeed,  the  entire  lifetime  of  the  higher  insect  may 
be  divided  into,  or  comprised  within,  two  distinct 
periods.  The  first  of  these  latter  is  the  nutritive  pe- 
riod, represented  by  the  caterpillar-state,  when  the 
nutrition  of  the  body  is  mainly  provided  for;  and  the 
second  period,  no  less  defined  than  the  first,  is  in- 
cluded in  the  life  of  the  perfect  form,  which  is  de- 
voted to  reproducing  the  species.  This  last  we  might 
therefore  term  the  reproductive  period  of  insect-life. 

All  insects,  however,  do  not  exemplify  "metamor- 
phosis" in  so  perfect  a  manner  as  does  the  butterfly. 
The  beetles,  flies,  bees,  etc.,  and  many  other  insects, 


1462  THE   STORY   OF  THE   UNIVERSE 

undergo  a  process  of  metamorphosis  essentially  re- 
sembling that  of  the  butterfly;  the  characteristic  fea- 
ture of  this  form  of  development  being  that  while  the 
caterpillar  stage  is  passed  in  activity,  the  pupa  or 
chrysalis  is  quiescent;  and  from  this  resting-pupa  the 
active,  winged  insect  comes  forth.  The  dragon-flies, 
crickets,  grasshoppers,  and  their  allies,  undergo,  on 
the  other  hand,  a  less  perfect  series  of  changes  than  the 
foregoing  insects.  The  young  grasshopper,  on  leav- 
ing the  egg,  bears  first  a  close  resemblance  to  the 
perfect  insect.  It  is,  further,  not  of  worm-like  con- 
formation, and  in  these  two  points  differs  from  the 
larva  of  the  other  forms.  Then,  thirdly,  it  does  not 
inclose  itself  in  a  cocoon-case,  but  passes  its  chrysalis 
stage  in  a  free  and  active  condition.  In  this  respect  it 
again  differs  from  the  butterfly  chrysalis;  and  its  per- 
fect form  is  attained  simply  by  the  development  of 
the  wings.  So  that,  in  reality,  the  chief  difference 
between  the  young  and  the  perfect  form  of  the  grass- 
hopper consists  in  the  non-development  in  the  former 
of  the  wings,  which  are  thus  characteristic  of  the 
adult  form. 

The  dragon-flies  illustrate  an  essentially  similar 
kind  of  metamorphosis,  but  also  exemplify  differ- 
ences in  the  details  of  their  development.  The  young 
of  the  dragon-fly  are  active  creatures,  inhabiting  the 
water  of  pools;  the  eggs  from  which  they  are  pro- 
duced having  been  deposited  by  the  parent  in  bunches 
on  the  leaves  of  water-plants.  The  larvae  are  of 
brownish  color,  and  possess  six  legs,  and  a  peculiar 
apparatus  of  jaws,  consisting  of  a  pair  of  nippers 
attached  to  a  movable,  rod-like  stem.  This  appara- 


INSECT  TRANSFORMATIONS  1463 

tus  can  be  folded  upon  the  head,  when  it  gives  to  the 
larva  the  appearance  of  being  masked,  and  hence  the 
name  of  "mask"  which  has  been  applied  to  this  struc- 
ture. But  on  the  approach  of  some  unwary  insect, 
the  jaws  can  be  rapidly  extended  to  seize  the  unfor- 
tunate victim,  and  convey  it  to  the  mouth  of  its  cap- 
tor. The  dragon-fly's  young  are  thus  purely  aquatic 
in  habits,  and  propel  themselves  along  by  ejecting 
water,  which  has  been  used  in  breathing,  from  the 
posterior  extremity  of  the  body. 

Having  arrived  at  the  close  of  its  chrysalis-stage 
of  development — the  chrysalis  differing  from  the 
larva  simply  in  its  greater  size,  and  in  the  develop- 
ment of  the  wings  and  perfect  body  within  the  pupa- 
skin — the  insect  at  length  fixes  its  body  to  some  water- 
plant.  The  pupa-skin  next  splits  along  the  back,  and 
the  mature,  winged  insect  slowly  emerges  therefrom. 
The  crumpled  wings  soon  dry,  and  acquire  their  nor- 
mal consistence;  and  the  dragon-fly,  freed  from  the 
trammels  of  a  mundane  existence,  mounts  into  the 
air,  and  "revels  in  the  freedom  of  luxury  and  light." 
Tennyson  has  aptly  described  this  change  in  his  lines : 

To-day  I  saw  the  dragon-fly 

Come  from  the  wells  where  he  did  lie. 

An  inner  impulse  rent  the  veil 
Of  his  old  husk :  from  head  to  tail 
Came  out  clear  plates  of  sapphire  mail. 

He  dried  his  wings :  like  gauze  they  grew : 
Thro'  crofts  and  pastures  wet  with  dew 
A  living  flash  of  light  he  flew. 

In  these  latter  instances,  as  in  the  case  of  the  but- 
terfly, the  nutrition  of  the  insects  has  been  proceeding 


1464  THE   STORY   OF   THE   UNIVERSE 

during  the  earlier  stages  of  life,  and  has  been  fitting 
them  for  entering  upon  the  final  part  of  their  exist- 
ence, which  may  extend  for  a  longer  or  shorter  pe- 
riod, but  which  is  mainly  devoted  to  the  continuation 
of  the  species.  The  time  occupied  in  the  develop- 
ment of  insects  varies  greatly  in  different  groups. 
Cold  and  damp  appear  to  delay  this  process.  The 
chrysalis  of  a  butterfly  has  been  kept  for  two  years  in 
an  icehouse,  without  undergoing  development;  while 
on  removal  to  a  warm  place  it  became  transformed 
into  the  winged  insect.  The  cockchafer  occupies 
three  years  in  its  development,  the  duration  of  life  in 
its  perfect  state  being  probably  only  a  single  year. 

STRUGGLE  FOR  EXIST- 
ENCE.—  CHARLES    DARWIN 

AMONG  organic  beings  in  a  state  of  nature 
there  is  some  individual  variability:  indeed  I 
agi  not  aware  that  this  has  ever  been  disputed.  It 
is  immaterial  for  us  whether  a  multitude  of  doubtful 
forms  be  called  species  or  sub-species  or  varieties; 
what  rank,  for  instance,  the  two  or  three  hundred 
doubtful  forms  of  British  plants  are  entitled  to  hold, 
if  the  existence  of  any  well-marked  varieties  be  ad- 
mitted. But  the  mere  existence  of  individual 
variability  and  of  some  few  well-marked  varieties, 
though  necessary  as  the  foundation  for  the  work, 
helps  us  but  little  in  understanding  how  species  arise 
in  nature.  How  have  all  those  exquisite  adaptations 
of  one  part  of  the  organization  to  another  part,  and 
to  the  conditions  of  life,  and  of  one  organic  being  to 


STRUGGLE    FOR   EXISTENCE  1-165 

another  being,  been  perfected?  We  see  these  beauti- 
ful co-adaptations  most  plainly  in  the  woodpecker 
and  the  mistletoe;  and  only  a  little  less  plainly  in 
the  humblest  parasite  which  clings  to  the  hairs  of  a 
quadruped  or  feathers  of  a  bird;  in  the  structure  of 
the  beetle  which  dives  through  the  water;  in  the 
plumed  seed  which  is  wafted  by  the  gentlest  breeze; 
in  short,  we  see  beautiful  adaptations  everywhere 
and  in  every  part  of  the  organic  world. 

Again,  it  may  be  asked,  how  is  it  that  varieties, 
which  I  have  called  incipient  species,  become  ulti- 
mately converted  into  good  and  distinct  species, 
which  in  most  cases  obviously  differ  from  each  other 
far  more  than  do  the  varieties  of  the  same  species? 
How  do  those  groups  of  species  which  constitute 
what  are  called  distinct  genera,  and  which  differ 
from  each  other  more  than  do  the  species  of  the  same 
genus,  arise?  All  these  results  follow  from  the 
struggle  for  life.  Owing  to  this  struggle,  variations, 
however  slight  and  from  whatever  cause  proceed- 
ing, if  they  be  in  any  degree  profitable  to  the  indi- 
viduals of  a  species,  in  their  infinitely  complex  re- 
lations to  other  organic  beings  and  to  their  physical 
conditions  of  life,  will  tend  to  the  preservation  of 
such  individuals,  and  will  generally  be  inherited  by 
the  offspring.  The  offspring,  also,  will  thus  have  a 
better  chance  of  surviving,  for,  of  the  many  indi- 
viduals of  any  species  which  are  periodically  born, 
but  a  small  number  can  survive.  I  have  called  this 
principle,  by  which  each  slight  variation,  if  useful, 
is  preserved,  by  the  term  Natural  Selection,  in  order 
to  mark  its  relation  to  man's  power  of  selection.  But 


1466  THE   STORY   OF  THE   UNIVERSE 

the  expression  often  used  by  Mr.  Herbert  Spencer 
of  the  Survival  of  the  Fittest  is  more  accurate,  and 
is  sometimes  equally  convenient. 

The  elder  De  Candolle  and  Lyell  have  largely 
and  philosophically  shown  that  all  organic  beings 
are  exposed  to  severe  competition.  In  regard  to 
plants,  no  one  has  treated  this  subject  with  more 
spirit  and  ability  than  W.  Herbert,  Dean  of  Man- 
chester, evidently  the  result  of  his  great  horticultural 
knowledge.  Nothing  is  easier  than  to  admit  in  words 
the  truth  of  the  universal  struggle  for  life,  or  more 
difficult — at  least  I  have  found  it  so — than  constantly 
to  bear  this  conclusion  in  mind.  Yet  unless  it  be 
thoroughly  ingrained  in  the  mind,  the  whole  econ- 
omy of  nature,  with  every  fact  on  distribution, 
rarity,  abundance,  extinction,  and  variation,  will  be 
dimly  seen  or  quite  misunderstood.  We  behold  the 
face  of  nature  bright  with  gladness,  we  often  see 
superabundance  of  food ;  we  do  not  see  or  we  forget 
that  the  birds  which  are  idly  singing  round  us  mostly 
live  on  insects  or  seeds,  and  are  thus  constantly  de- 
stroying life;  or  we  forget  how  largely  these  song- 
sters, or  their  eggs,  or  their  nestlings,  are  destroyed 
by  birds  and  beasts  of  prey;  we  do  not  always  bear 
in  mind  that,  though  food  may  be  now  superabun- 
dant, it  is  not  so  at  all  seasons  of  each  recurring  year. 

I  should  premise  that  I  use  this  term  Struggle  for 
Existence  in  a  large  and  metaphorical  sense,  includ- 
ing dependence  of  one  being  on  another,  and  in- 
cluding (which  is  more  important)  not  only  the 
life  of  the  individual,  but  success  in  leaving  progeny. 
Two  canine  animals,  in  a  time  of  dearth,  may  be 


STRUGGLE   FOR   EXISTENCE  1467 

truly  said  to  struggle  with  each  other  which  shall 
get  food  and  live.  But  a  plant  on  the  edge  of  a 
desert  is  said  to  struggle  for  life  against  the  drought, 
though  more  properly  it  should  be  said  to  be  de- 
pendent on  the  moisture.  A  plant  which  annually 
produces  a  thousand  seeds,  of  which  only  one  on  an 
average  comes  to  maturity,  may  be  more  truly  said 
to  struggle  with  the  plants  of  the  same  and  other 
kinds  which  already  clothe  the  ground.  The  mistle- 
toe is  dependent  on  the  apple  and  a  few  other  trees, 
but  can  only  in  a  far-fetched  sense  be  said  to  strug- 
gle with  these  trees,  for,  if  too  many  of  these  para- 
sites grow  on  the  same  tree,  it  languishes  and  dies. 
But  several  seedling  mistletoes,  growing  close  to- 
gether on  the  same  branch,  may  more  truly  be  said 
to  struggle  with  each  other.  As  the  mistletoe  is  dis- 
seminated by  birds,  its  existence  depends  on  them; 
and  it  may  metaphorically  be  said  to  struggle  with 
other  fruit-bearing  plants,  in  tempting  the  birds  to 
devour  and  thus  disseminate  its  seeds.  In  these 
several  senses,  which  pass  into  each  other,  I  use  for 
convenience'  sake  the  general  term  of  Struggle  for 
Existence. 

A  struggle  for  existence  inevitably  follows  from 
the  high  rate  at  which  all  organic  beings  tend  to 
increase.  Every  being,  which  during  its  natural 
lifetime  produces  several  eggs  or  seeds,  must  suffer 
destruction  during  some  period  of  its  life,  and  during 
some>  season  or  occasional  year,  otherwise,  on  the 
principle  of  geometrical  increase,  its  numbers  would 
quickly  become  so  inordinately  great  that  no  country 
could  support  the  product.  Hence,  as  more  indi- 


1468  THE   STORY   OF  THE   UNIVERSE 

viduals  are  produced  than  can  possibly  survive,  there 
must  in  every  case  be  a  struggle  for  existence,  either 
one  individual  with  another  of  the  same  species,  or 
with  the  individuals  of  distinct  species. 

There  is  no  exception  to  the  rule  that  every  or- 
ganic being  naturally  increases  at  so  high  a  rate  that, 
if  not  destroyed,  the  earth  would  soon  be  covered 
by  the  progeny  of  a  single  pair.  Even  slow-breeding 
man  has  doubled  in  twenty-five  years,  and  at  this 
rate,  in  less  than  a  thousand  years,  there  would  liter- 
ally not  be  standing-room  for  his  progeny.  Linnaeus 
has  calculated  that  if  an  annual  plant  produced  only 
two  seeds — and  there  is  no  plant  so  unproductive  as 
this — and  their  seedlings  next  year  produced  two, 
and  so  on,  then  in  twenty  years  there  would  be  a  mil- 
lion plants.  The  elephant  is  reckoned  the  slowest 
breeder  of  all  known  animals,  and  I  have  taken  some 
pains  to  estimate  its  probable  minimum  rate  of  nat- 
ural increase;  it  will  be  safest  to  assume  that  it  be- 
gins breeding  when  thirty  years  old,  and  goes  on 
breeding  till  ninety  years  old,  bringing  forth  six 
young  in  the  interval,  and  surviving  till  one  hundred 
years  old;  if  this  be  so,  after  a  period  of  from  740 
to  750  years  there  would  be  nearly  nineteen  million 
elephants  alive,  descended  from  the  first  pair. 

But  we  have  better  evidence  on  this  subject  than 
mere  theoretical  calculations;  namely,  the  numerous 
recorded  cases  of  the  astonishingly  rapid  increase  of 
various  animals  in  a  state  of  nature,  when  circum- 
stances have  been  favorable  to  them  during  two  or 
three  following  seasons.  Still  more  striking  is  the 
evidence  from  our  domestic  animals  of  many  kinds 


STRUGGLE    FOR   EXISTENCE  1469 

which  have  run  wild  in  several  parts  of  the  world; 
if  the  statements  of  the  rate  of  increase  of  slow-breed- 
ing cattle  and  horses  in  South  America,  and  latterly 
in  Australia,  had  not  been  well  authenticated,  they 
would  have  been  incredible.  So  it  is  with  plants; 
cases  could  be  given  of  introduced  plants  which  have 
become  common  throughout  whole  islands  in  a  pe- 
riod of  less  than  ten  years.  In  such  cases,  and  end- 
less others  could  be  given,  no  one  supposes  that  the 
fertility  of  the  animals  or  plants  has  been  suddenly 
and  temporarily  increased  in  any  sensible  degree. 
The  obvious  explanation  is  that  the  conditions  of 
life  have  been  highly  favorable,  and  that  there  has 
consequently  been  less  destruction  of  the  old  and 
young,  and  that  nearly  all  the  young  have  been  en- 
abled to  breed.  Their  geometrical  ratio  of  increase, 
the  result  of  which  never  fails  to  be  surprising, 
simply  explains  their  extraordinarily  rapid  increase 
and  wide  diffusion  in  their  new  homes. 

In  a  state  of  nature  almost  every  full-grown  plant 
annually  produces  seed,  and  among  animals  there 
are  very  few  which  do  not  annually  pair.  Hence  we 
may  confidently  assert  that  all  plants  and  animals 
are  tending  to  increase  at  a  geometrical  ratio — that 
all  would  rapidly  stock  every  station  in  which  they 
could  anyhow  exist — and  that  this  geometrical  ten- 
dency to  increase  must  be  checked  by  destruction  at 
some  period  of  life.  Our  familiarity  with  the  larger 
domestic  animals  tends,  I  think,  to  mislead  us:  we 
see  no  great  destruction  falling  on  them,  but  we  do 
not  keep  in  mind  that  thousands  are  annually 
slaughtered  for  food,  and  that  in  a  state  of  nature 


1470  THE  STORY   OF  THE   UNIVERSE 

an  equal  number  would  have  somehow  to  be  dis- 
posed of. 

The  only  difference  between  organisms  which  an- 
nually produce  eggs  or  seeds  by  the  thousand,  and 
those  which  produce  extremely  few,  is,  that  the  slow- 
breeders  would  require  a  few  more  years  to  people, 
under  favorable  conditions,  a  whole  district,  let  it 
be  ever  so  large.  The  condor  lays  a  couple  of  eggs 
and  the  ostrich  a  score,  and  yet  in  the  same  country 
the  condor  may  be  the  more  numerous  of  the  two; 
the  Fulmar  petrel  lays  but  one  egg,  yet  it  is  believed 
to  be  the  most  numerous  bird  in  the  world.  One 
fly  deposits  hundreds  of  eggs,  and  another,  like  the 
hippobosca,  a  single  one;  but  this  difference  does 
not  determine  how  many  individuals  of  the  two  spe- 
cies can  be  supported  in  a  district.  A  large  number 
of  eggs  is  of  some  importance  to  those  species  which 
depend  on  a  fluctuating  amount  of  food,  for  it  allows 
them  rapidly  to  increase  in  number.  But  the  real 
importance  of  a  large  number  of  eggs  or  seeds  is 
to  make  up  for  much  destruction  at  some  period  of 
life;  and  this  period  in  the  great  majority  of  cases 
is  an  early  one.  If  an  animal  can  in  any  way  pro- 
tect its  own  eggs  or  young,  a  small  number  may  be 
produced,  and  yet  the  average  stock  be  fully  kept 
up ;  but  if  many  eggs  or  young  are  destroyed,  many 
must  be  produced,  or  the  species  will  become  extinct. 
It  would  suffice  to  keep  up  the  full  number  of  a 
tree,  which  lived  on  an  average  for  a  thousand  years, 
if  a  single  seed  were  produced  once  in  a  thousand 
years,  supposing  that  this  seed  were  never  destroyed, 
and  could  be  insured  to  germinate  in  a  fitting  place. 


STRUGGLE   FOR   EXISTENCE  1471 

So  that,  in  all  cases,  the  average  number  of  any  ani- 
mal or  plant  depends  only  indirectly  on  the  number 
of  its  eggs  or  seeds. 

In  looking  at  Nature,  it  is  most  necessary  to  keep 
the  foregoing  considerations  always  in  mind — never 
to  forget  that  every  single  organic  being  may  be  said 
to  be  striving  to  the  utmost  to  increase  in  numbers; 
that  each  lives  by  a  struggle  at  some  period  of  its 
life;  that  heavy  destruction  inevitably  falls  either 
on  the  young  or  old,  during  each  generation  or  at 
recurrent  intervals.  Lighten  any  check,  mitigate  the 
destruction  ever  so  little,  and  the  number  of  the 
species  will  almost  instantaneously  increase  to  any 
amount. 

The  causes  which  check  the  natural  tendency  of 
each  species  to  increase  are  most  obscure.  Look  at 
the  most  vigorous  species;  by  as  much  as  it  swarms 
in  numbers,  by  so  much  will  it  tend  to  increase  still 
further.  We  know  not  exactly  what  the  checks  are 
even  in  a  single  instance.  Nor  will  this  surprise  any 
one  who  reflects  how  ignorant  we  are  on  this  head, 
even  in  regard  to  mankind,  although  so  incom- 
parably better  known  than  any  other  animal.  Eggs 
or  very  young  animals  seem  generally  to  suffer  most, 
but  this  is  not  invariably  the  case.  With  plants  there 
is  a  vast  destruction  of  seeds,  but,  from  some  observa- 
tions which  I  have  made,  it  appears  that  the  seedlings 
suffer  most  from  germinating  in  ground  already 
thickly  stocked  with  other  plants.  Seedlings,  also, 
are  destroyed  in  vast  numbers  by  various  enemies; 
for  instance,  on  a  piece  of  ground  three  feet  long 
j  two  wide,  dug  and  cleared,  and  where  there 


1472  THE  STORY  OF  THE   UNIVERSE 

could  be  no  choking  from  other  plants,  I  marked 
all  the  seedlings  of  our  native  weeds  as  they  came  up, 
and  out  of  -357  no  less  than  295  were  destroyed, 
chiefly  by  slugs  and  insects.  If  turf  which  has  long 
been  mown,  and  the  case  would  be  the  same  with 
turf  closely  browsed  by  quadrupeds,  be  let  grow, 
the  more  vigorous  plants  gradually  kill  the  less  vig- 
orous, though  fully  grown  plants ;  thus  out  of  twenty 
species  growing  on  a  little  plot  of  mown  turf  (three 
feet  by  four)  nine  species  perished,  from  the  other 
species  being  allowed  to  grow  up  freely. 

The  amount  of  food  for  each  species  of  course 
gives  the  extreme  limit  to  which  each  can  increase; 
but  very  frequently  it  is  not  the  obtaining  food;  but 
the  serving  as  prey  to  other  animals,  which  deter- 
mines the  average  numbers  of  species.  Thus,  there 
seems  to  be  little  doubt  that  the  stock  of  partridges, 
grouse,  and  hares  on  any  large  estate  depends  chiefly 
on  the  destruction  of  vermin.  If  not  one  head  of 
game  were  shot  during  the  next  twenty  years  in 
England,  and,  at  the  same  time,  if  no  vermin  were 
destroyed,  there  would,  in  all  probability,  be  less 
game  than  at  present,  although  hundreds  of  thousands 
of  game  animals  are  now  annually  shot.  On  the  other 
hand,  in  some  cases,  as  with  the  elephant,  none  is 
destroyed  by  beasts  of  prey;  for  even  the  tiger  in 
India  most  rarely  dares  to  attack  a  young  elephant 
protected  by  its  dam. 

Climate  plays  an  important  part  in  determining 
the  average  numbers  of  a  species,  and  periodical  sea- 
sons of  extreme  cold  or  drought  seem  to  be  the  most 
effective  of  all  checks.  I  estimated  (chiefly  from  the 


STRUGGLE   FOR   EXISTENCE  1473 

greatly  reduced  numbers  of  nests  in  the  spring)  that 
the  winter  of  1854-55  destroyed  four-fifths  of  the 
birds  in  my  own  grounds;  and  this  is  a  tremendous 
destruction,  when  we  remember  that  ten  per  cent  is 
an  extraordinarily  severe  mortality  Trom  epidemics 
with  man.  The  action  of  climate  seems  at  first  sight 
to  be  quite  independent  of  the  struggle  for  existence ; 
but  in  so  far  as  climate  chiefly  acts  in  reducing  food, 
it  brings  on  the  most  severe  struggle  between  the  in- 
dividuals, whether  of  the  same  or  of  distinct  species, 
which  subsist  on  the  same  kind  of  food.  Even  when 
climate,  for  instance  extreme  cold,  acts  directly,  it 
will  be  the  least  vigorous  individuals,  or  those  which 
have  got  least  food  through  the  advancing  winter, 
which  will  suffer  most.  When  we  travel  from 
south  to  north,  or  from  a  damp  region  to  a  dry,  we 
invariably  see  some  species  gradually  getting  rarer 
and  rarer,  and  finally  disappearing;  and  the  change 
of  climate  being  conspicuous,  we  are  tempted  to 
attribute  the  whole  effect  to  its  direct  action.  But 
this  is  a  false  view;  we  forget  that  each  species,  even 
where  it  most  abounds,  is  constantly  suffering  enor- 
mous destruction  at  some  period  of  its  life,  from 
enemies  or  from  competitors  for  the  same  place  and 
food;  and  if  these  enemies  or  competitors  be  in  the 
least  degree  favored  by  any  slight  change  of  climate, 
they  will  increase  in  numbers;  and  as  each  area  is 
already  fully  stocked  with  inhabitants,  the  other  spe- 
cies must  decrease.  When  we  travel  southward  and 
see  a  species  decreasing  in  numbers,  we  may  feel 
sure  that  the  cause  lies  quite  as  much  in  other  species 
being  favored  as  in  this  one  being  hurt.  So  it  is  when 


1474  THE   STORY   OF   THE   UNIVERSE 

we  travel  northward,  but  in  a  somewhat  lesser  de- 
gree, for  the  number  of  species  of  all  kinds,  and 
therefore  of  competitors,  decreases  northward ;  hence 
in  going  northward,  or  in  ascending  a  mountain,  we 
far  oftener  meet  with  stunted  forms,  due  to  the  di- 
rectly injurious  action  of  climate,  than  we  do  in  pro- 
ceeding southward  or  in  descending  a  mountain. 
When  we  reach  the  Arctic  regions  or  snow-capped 
summits,  or  absolute  deserts,  the  struggle  for  life  is 
almost  exclusively  with  the  elements. 

That  climate  acts  in  main  part  indirectly  by  fa- 
voring other  species,  we  clearly  see  in  the  prodigious 
number  of  plants  which  in  our  gardens  can  per- 
fectly well  endure  our  climate,  but  which  never  be- 
come naturalized,  for  they  can  not  compete  with  our 
native  plants  nor  resist  destruction  by  our  native 
animals. 

When  a  species,  owing  to  highly  favorable  cir- 
cumstances, increases. inordinately  in  numbers  in  a 
small  tract,  epidemics — at  least,  this  seems  generally 
to  occur  with  our  game  animals — often  ensue;  and 
here  we  have  a  limiting  check  independent  of  the 
struggle  for  life.  But  even  some  of  these  so-called 
epidemics  appear  to  be  due  to  parasitic  worms, 
which  have  from  some  cause,  possibly  in  part 
through  facility  of  diffusion  among  the  crowded  ani- 
mals, been  disproportionally  favored:  and  here 
comes  in  a  sort  of  struggle  between  the  parasite  and 
its  prey. 

On  the  other  hand,  in  many  cases,  a  large  stock 
of  individuals  of  the  same  species,  relatively  to  the 
numbers  of  its  enemies,  is  absolutely  necessary  for 


STRUGGLE   FOR   EXISTENCE  U75 

its  preservation.  Thus  we  can  easily  raise  plenty  of 
corn  and  rape-seed,  etc.,  in  our  fields,  because  the 
seeds  are  in  great  excess  compared  with  the  number 
of  birds  which  feed  on  them;  nor  can  the  birds, 
though  having  a  superabundance  of  food  at  this  one 
season,  increase  in  number  proportionally  to  the 
supply  of  seed,  as  their  numbers  are  checked  during 
winter;  but  any  one  who  has  tried  knows  how 
troublesome  it  is  to  get  seed  from  a  few  wheat  or 
other  such  plants  in  a  garden :  I  have  in  this  case  lost 
every  single  seed.  This  view  of  the  necessity  of  a 
large  stock  of  the  same  species  for  its  preservation 
explains,  I  believe,  some  singular  facts  in  nature, 
such  as  that  of  very  rare  plants  being  sometimes  ex- 
tremely abundant,  in  the  few  spots  where  they  do 
exist;  and  that  of  some  social  plants  being  social,  that 
is  abounding  in  individuals,  even  on  the  extreme 
verge  of  their  range.  For  in  such  cases  we  may  be- 
lieve that  a  plant  could  exist  only  where  the  condi- 
tions of  its  life  were  so  favorable  that  many  could 
exist  together,  and  thus  save  the  species  from  utter 
destruction.  I  should  add  that  the  good  effects  of 
intercrossing,  and  the  ill  effects  of  close  interbreed- 
ing, no  doubt  come  into  play  in  many  of  these  cases. 
Many  cases  are  on  record  showing  how  complex 
and  unexpected  are  the  checks  and  relations  between 
organic  beings  which  have  to  struggle  together  in 
the  same  country.  I  will  give  only  a  single  instance, 
which,  though  a  simple  one,  interested  me.  In 
Staffordshire,  on  the  estate  of  a  relation,  where  T 
had  ample  means  of  investigation,  there  was  a  large 
and  extremely  barren  heath,  which  had  never  been 


1476  THE   STORY   OF  THE   UNIVERSE 

touched  by  the  hand  of  man;  but  several  hundred 
acres  of  exactly  the  same  nature  had  been  inclosed 
twenty-five  years  previously  and  planted  with  Scotch 
fir.  The  change  in  the  native  vegetation  of  the 
planted  part  of  the  heath  was  most  remarkable, 
more  than  is  generally  seen  in  passing  from  one 
quite  different  soil  to  another:  not  only  the  propor- 
tional numbers  of  the  heath-plants  were  wholly 
changed,  but  twelve  species  of  plants  (not  counting 
grasses  and  carices)  flourished  in  the  plantations, 
which  could  not  be  found  on  the  heath.  The  effect 
on  the  insects  must  have  been  still  greater,  for  six 
insectivorous  birds  were  very  common  in  the  planta- 
tions, which  were  not  to  be  seen  on  the  heath;  and 
the  heath  was  frequented  by  two  or  three  distinct  in- 
sectivorous birds.  Here  we  see  how  potent  has  been 
the  effect  of  the  introduction  of  a  single  tree,  nothing 
whatever  else  having  been  done,  with  the  exception 
of  the  land  having  been  inclosed,  so  that  cattle  could 
not  enter.  But  how  important  an  element  inclosure 
is  I  plainly  saw  near  Farnham,  in  Surrey.  Here 
there  are  extensive  heaths,  with  a  few  clumps  of  old 
Scotch  firs  on  the  distant  hilltops:  within  the  last 
ten  years  large  spaces  have  been  inclosed,  and  self- 
sown  firs  are  now  springing  up  in  multitudes,  so  close 
together  that  all  can  not  live.  When  I  ascertained 
that  these  young  trees  had  not  been  sown  or  planted, 
I  was  so  much  surprised  at  their  numbers  that  I  went 
to  several  points  of  view,  whence  I  could  examine 
hundreds  of  acres  of  the  uninclosed  heath,  and  liter- 
ally I  could  not  see  a  single  Scotch  fir  except  the 
old  planted  clumps.  But  on  looking  closely  between 


STRUGGLE   FOR   EXISTENCE  1477 

the  stems  of  the  heath,  I  found  a  multitude  of  seed- 
lings and  little  trees  which  had  been  perpetually 
browsed  down  by  the  cattle.  In  one  square  yard, 
at  a  point  some  hundred  yards  distant  from  one  of 
the  old  clumps,  I  counted  thirty-two  little  trees ;  and 
one  of  them,  with  twenty-six  rings  of  growth,  had, 
during  many  years,  tried  to  raise  its  head  above  the 
stems  of  the  heath,  and  had  failed.  No  wonder  that, 
as  soon  as  the  land  was  inclosed,  it  became  thickly 
clothed  with  vigorously  growing  young  firs.  Yet 
the  heath  was  so  extremely  barren  and  so  extensive 
that  no  one  would  ever  have  imagined  that  cattle 
would  have  so  closely  and  effectually  searched  it  for 
food. 

Here  we  see  that  cattle  absolutely  determine  the 
existence  of  the  Scotch  fir;  but  in  several  parts  of 
the  world  insects  determine  the  existence  of  cattle. 
Perhaps  Paraguay  offers  the  most  curious  instance 
of  this;  for  here  neither  cattle  nor  horses  nor  dogs 
have  ever  run  wild,  though  they  swarm  southward 
and  northward  in  a  feral  state ;  and  Azara  and  Reng- 
ger  have  shown  that  this  is  caused  by  the  greater 
number  in  Paraguay  of  a  certain  fly,  which  lays  its 
eggs  in  the  navels  of  these  animals  when  first  born. 
The  increase  of  these  flies,  numerous  as  they  are, 
must  be  habitually  checked  by  some  means,  probably 
by  other  parasitic  insects.  Hence,  if  certain  in- 
sectivorous birds  were  to  decrease  in  Paraguay,  the 
parasitic  insects  would  probably  increase;  and  this 
would  lessen  the  number  of  the  navel-frequenting 
flies — then  cattle  and  horses  would  become  feral,  and 
this  would  certainly  greatly  alter  (as  indeed  I  have 


1478  THE   STORY   OF  THE   UNIVERSE 

observed  in  parts  of  South  America)  the  vegeta- 
tion :  this  again  would  largely  affect  the  insects ;  and 
this,  as  we  have  just  seen  in  Staffordshire,  the  in- 
sectivorous birds,  and  so  onward  in  ever-increasing 
circles  of  complexity.  Not  that  under  nature  the  re- 
lations will  ever  be  as  simple  as  this.  Battle  within 
battle  must  be  continually  recurring  with  varying 
success;  and  yet  in  the  long  run  the  forces  are  so 
nicely  balanced  that  the  face  of  nature  remains  for 
long  periods  of  time  uniform,  though  assuredly  the 
merest  trifle  would  give  the  victory  to  one  organic 
being  over  another.  Nevertheless,  so  profound  is 
our  ignorance,  and  so  high  our  presumption,  that  we 
marvel  when  we  hear  of  the  extinction  of  an  organic 
being;  and  as  we  do  not  see  the  cause,  we  invoke 
cataclysms  to  desolate  the  world,  or  invent  laws  on 
the  duration  of  the  forms  of  life! 

I  am  tempted  to  give  one  more  instance  showing 
how  plants  and  animals,  remote  in  the  scale  of  na- 
ture, are  bound  together  by  a  web  of  complex  re- 
lations. I  shall  hereafter  have  occasion  to  show  that 
the  exotic  Lobelia  fulgens  is  never  visited  in  my 
garden  by  insects,  and  consequently,  from  its  peculiar 
structure,  never  sets  a  seed.  Nearly  all  our  orchid- 
aceous plants  absolutely  require  the  visits  of  insects 
to  remove  their  pollen-masses  and  thus  to  fertilize 
them.  I  find  from  experiments  that  bumblebees 
are  almost  indispensable  to  the  fertilization  of  the 
heart's-ease  (Violo  tricolor),  for  other  bees  do  not 
visit  this  flower.  I  have  also  found  that  the  visits 
of  bees  are  necessary  for  the  fertilization  of  some 
kinds  of  clover;  for  instance,  20  heads  of  Dutch 


STRUGGLE   FOR   EXISTENCE  1479 

clover  (Trifolium  repens)  yielded  2,290  seeds,  but 
20  other  heads  protected  from  bees  produced  not 
one.  Again,  100  heads  of  red  clover  (T.  pratense) 
produced  2,700  seeds,  but  the  same  number  of  pro- 
tected heads  produced  not  a  single  seed.  Humble- 
bees  alone  visit  red  clover,  as  other  bees  can  not 
reach  the  nectar.  It  has  been  suggested  that  moths 
may  fertilize  the  clovers ;  but  I  doubt  whether  they 
could  do  so  in  the  case  of  the  red  clover,  from  their 
weight  not  being  sufficient  to  depress  the  wing  petals. 
Hence  we  may  infer  as  highly  probable  that,  if  the 
whole  genus  of  humblebees  became  extinct  or  very 
rare  in  England,  the  heart's-ease  and  red  clover 
would  become  very  rare,  or  wholly  disappear.  The 
number  of  humblebees  in  any  district  depends  in 
a  great  measure  upon  the  number  of  field-mice, 
which  destroy  their  combs  and  nests;  and  Colonel 
Newman,  who  has  long  attended  to  the  habits  of 
humblebees,  believes  that  "more  than  two-thirds  of 
them  are  thus  destroyed  all  over  England."  Now 
the  number  of  mice  is  largely  dependent,  as  every 
one  knows,  on  the  number  of  cats ;  and  Colonel  New- 
man says,  "Near  villages  and  small  towns  I  have 
found  the  nests  of  humblebees  more  numerous  than 
elsewhere,  which  I  attribute  to  the  number  of  cats 
that  destroy  the  mice."  Hence  it  is  quite  credible 
that  the  presence  of  a  feline  animal  in  large  numbers 
in  a  district  might  determine,  through  the  interven- 
tion first  of  mice  and  then  of  bees,  the  frequency  of 
certain  flowers  in  that  district! 

The  dependency  of  one  organic  being  on  another, 
as  of  a  parasite  on  its  prey,  lies  generally  between 


1480  THE   STORY   OF   THE   UNIVERSE 

beings  remote  in  the  scale  of  nature.  This  is  like- 
wise sometimes  the  case  with  those  which  may  be 
strictly  said  to  struggle  with  each  other  for  existence, 
as  in  the  case  of  locusts  and  grassfeeding  quadrupeds. 
But  the  struggle  will  almost  invariably  be  most  se- 
vere between  the  individuals  of  the  same  species, 
for  they  frequent  the  same  districts,  require  the  same 
food,  and  are  exposed  to  the  same  dangers.  In  the 
case  of  varieties  of  the  same  species,  the  struggle  will 
generally  be  almost  equally  severe,  and  we  some- 
times see  the  contest  soon  decided:  for  instance,  if 
several  varieties  of  wheat  be  sown  together,  and  the 
mixed  seed  be  resown,  some  of  the  varieties  which 
best  suit  the  soil  or  climate,  or  are  naturally  the  most 
fertile,  will  beat  the  others  and  so  yield  more  seed, 
and  will  consequently  in  a  few  years  supplant  the 
other  varieties.  To  keep  up  a  mixed  stock  of  even 
such  extremely  close  varieties  as  the  variously 
colored  sweet  peas,  they  must  be  each  year  harvested 
separately,  and  the  seed  then  mixed  in  due  propor- 
tion, otherwise  the  weaker  kinds  will  steadily  de- 
crease in  number  and  disappear.  So  again  with  the 
varieties  of  sheep;  it  has  been  asserted  that  certain 
mountain  varieties  will  starve  out  other  mountain 
varieties,  so  that  they  can  not  be  kept  together.  The 
same  result  has  followed  from  keeping  together  dif- 
ferent varieties  of  the  medicinal  leech.  It  may  even 
be  doubted  whether  the  varieties  of  any  of  our  do- 
mestic plants  or  animals  have  so  exactly  the  same 
strength,  habits,  and  constitution,  that  the  original 
proportions  of  a  mixed  stock  (crossing  being  pre- 
vented) could  be  kept  up  for  half  a  dozen  genera- 


STRUGGLE   FOR    EXISTENCE  U81 

tions,  if  they  were  allowed  to  struggle  together,  in 
the  same  manner  as  beings  in  a  state  of  nature,  and 
if  the  seed  or  young  were  not  annually  preserved  in 
due  proportion. 

As  the  species  of  the  same  genus  usually  have, 
though  by  no  means  invariably,  much  similarity  in 
habits  and  constitution,  and  always  in  structure,  the 
struggle  will  generally  be  more  severe  between  them, 
if  they  come  into  competition  with  each  other,  than 
between  the  species  of  distinct  genera.  We  see 
this  in  the  extension  over  parts  of  the  United 
States  of  one  species  of  swallow  having  caused  the 
decrease  of  another  species.  The  increase  of  the 
missel-thrush  in  parts  of  Scotland  has  caused  the 
decrease  of  the  song-thrush.  How  frequently  we 
hear  of  one  species  of  rat  taking  the  place  of  another 
species  under  the  most  different  climates!  In  Rus- 
sia the  small  Asiatic  cockroach  has  everywhere 
driven  before  it  its  great  congener.  In  Australia  the 
imported  hive-bee  is  rapidly  exterminating  the  small, 
stingless  native  bee.  One  species  of  charlock  has 
been  known  to  supplant  another  species;  and  so  in 
other  cases. 

A  corollary  of  the  highest  importance  may  be  de- 
duced from  the  foregoing  remarks;  namely,  that 
the  structure  of  every  organic  being  is  related,  in 
the  most  essential  yet  often  hidden  manner,  to  that 
of  all  the  other  organic  beings,  with  which  it  comes 
into  competition  for  food  or  residence,  or  from 
which  it  has  to  escape,  or  on  which  it  preys.  This 
is  obvious  in  the  structure  of  the  teeth  and  talons  of 
the  tiger;  and  in  that  of  the  legs  and  claws  of  the 


1482  THE   STORY  OF  THE   UNIVERSE 

parasite  which  clings  to  the  hair  on  the  tiger's  body. 
But  in  the  beautifully  plumed  seed  of  the  dandelion, 
and  in  the  flattened  and  fringed  legs  of  the  water- 
beetle,  the  relation  seems  at  first  confined  to  the  ele- 
ments of  air  and  water.  Yet  the  advantage  of 
plumed  seeds  no  doubt  stands  in  the  closest  relation 
to  the  land  being  already  thickly  clothed  with  other 
plants;  so  that  the  seeds  may  be  widely  distributed 
and  fall  on  unoccupied  ground.  In  the  water- 
beetle,  the  structure  of  -its  legs,  so  well  adapted  for 
diving,  allows  it  to  compete  with  other  aquatic  in- 
sects, to  hunt  for  its  own  prey,  and  to  escape  serving 
as  prey  to  other  animals. 

All  that  we  can  do  is  to  keep  steadily  in  mind  that 
each  organic  being  is  striving  to  increase  in  a  geo- 
metrical ratio;  that  each  at  some  period  of  its  life, 
during  some  season  of  the  year,  during  each  genera- 
tion, or  at  intervals,  has  to  struggle  for  life  and  to 
suffer  great  destruction.  When  we  reflect  on  this 
struggle,  we  may  console  ourselves  with  the  full  be- 
lief that  the  war  of  nature  is  not  incessant,  that  no 
fear  is  felt,  that  death  is  generally  prompt,  and 
that  the  vigorous,  the  healthy,  and  the  happy  survive 
and  multiply. 

NATURAL    SELECTION 

— CHARLES  DARWIN 

HOW  will  the  struggle  for  existence,  briefly  dis- 
cussed in  the  last  chapter,  act  in  regard  to  vari- 
ation?   Can  the  principle  of  selection,  which  we  have 
seen  is  so  potent  in  the  hands  of  man,  apply  under 


NATURAL  SELECTION  1483 

nature?  I  think  we  shall  see  that  it  can  act  most 
efficiently.  Let  the  endless  number  of  slight  varia- 
tions and  individual  differences  occurring  in  our  do- 
mestic productions,  and,  in  a  lesser  degree,  in  those 
under  nature,  be  borne  in  mind;  as  well  as  the 
strength  of  the  hereditary  tendency.  Under  domesti- 
cation, it  may  be  truly  said  that  the  whole  organiza- 
tion becomes  in  some  degree  plastic.  But  the  varia- 
bility, which  we  almost  universally  meet  with  in  our 
domestic  productions,  is  not  directly  produced,  as 
Hooker  and  Asa  Gray  have  well  remarked,  by  man; 
he  can  neither  originate  varieties,  nor  prevent  their 
occurrence;  he  can  only  preserve  and  accumulate 
such  as  do  occur.  Unintentionally  he  exposes  organic 
beings  to  new  and  changing  conditions  of  life,  and 
variability  ensues;  but  similar  changes  of  conditions 
might  and  do  occur  under  nature.  Let  it  also  be 
borne  in  mind  how  infinitely  complex  and  close-fit- 
ting are  the  mutual  relations  of  all  organic  beings 
to  each  other  and  to  their  physical  conditions  of  life; 
and  consequently  what  infinitely  varied  diversities  of 
structure  might  be  of  use  to  each  being  under  chang- 
ing conditions  of  life.  Can  it,  then,  be  thought  im- 
probable, seeing  that  variations  useful  to  man  have 
undoubtedly  occurred,  that  other  variations  useful  in 
some  way  to  each  being  in  the  great  and  complex 
battle  of  life,  should  occur  in  the  course  of  many  suc- 
cessive generation*?  If  such  do  occur,  can  we  doubt 
(remembering  that  many  more  individuals  are  born 
than  can  possibly  survive)  that  individuals  having 
any  advantage,  however  slight,  over  others,  would 
have  the  best  chance  of  surviving  and  of  procreating 


1484  THE   STORY   OF  THE   UNIVERSE 

their  kind?  On  the  other  hand,  we  may  feel  sure 
that  any  variation  in  the  least  degree  injurious  would 
be  rigidly  destroyed.  This  preservation  of  favorable 
individual  differences  and  variations,  and  the  destruc- 
tion of  those  which  are  injurious,  I  have  called  Nat- 
ural Selection,  or  the  Survival  of  the  Fittest 

We  shall  best  understand  the  probable  course  of 
natural  selection  by  taking  the  case  of  a  country 
undergoing  some  slight  physical  change,  for  instance, 
of  climate.  The  proportional  numbers  of  its  inhabi- 
tants will  almost  immediately  undergo  a  change,  and 
some  species  will  probably  become  extinct.  We  may 
conclude,  from  what  we  have  seen  of  the  intimate 
and  complex  manner  in  which  the  inhabitants  of  each 
country  are  bound  together,  that  any  change  in  the 
numerical  proportions  of  the  inhabitants,  indepen- 
dently of  the  change  of  climate  itself,  would  seriously 
affect  the  others.  If  the  country  were  open  on  its 
borders,  new  forms  would  certainly  immigrate,  and 
this  would  likewise  seriously  disturb  the  relations 
of  some  of  the  former  inhabitants.  Let  it  be  remem- 
bered how  powerful  the  influence  of  a  single  intro- 
duced tree  or  mammal  has  been  shown  to  be.  But 
in  the  case  of  an  island,  or  of  a  country  partly  sur- 
rounded by  barriers,  into  which  new  and  better 
adapted  forms  could  not  freely  enter,  we  should  then 
have  places  in  the  economy  of  nature  which  would 
assuredly  be  better  filled  up,  if  some  of  the  original 
inhabitants  were  in  some  manner  modified;  for,  had 
the  area  been  open  to  immigration,  these  same  places 
would  have  been  seized  on  by  intruders.  In  such 
cases,  slight  modifications,  which  in  any  way  fa- 


NATURAL  SELECTION  1485 

vored  the  individuals  of  any  species,  by  better  adapt- 
ing them  to  their  altered  conditions,  would  tend  to 
be  preserved;  and  natural  selection  would  have  free 
scope  for  the  work  of  improvement. 

We  have  good  reason  to  believe  that  changes  in  the 
conditions  of  life  give  a  tendency  to  increased  varia- 
bility; and  in  the  foregoing  cases  the  conditions  have 
changed,  and  this  would  manifestly  be  favorable  to 
natural  selection,  by  affording  a  better  chance  of  the 
occurrence  of  profitable  variations.  Unless  such  oc- 
cur, natural  selection  can  do  nothing.  Under  the 
term  of  "variations,"  it  must  never  be  forgotten  that 
mere  individual  differences  are  included.  As  man 
can  produce  a  great  result  with  his  domestic  animals 
and  plants  by  adding  up  in  any  given  direction  indi- 
vidual differences,  so  could  natural  selection,  but  far 
more  easily  from  having  incomparably  longer  time 
for  action.  Nor  do  I  believe  that  any  great  physical 
change,  as  of  climate,  or  any  unusual  degree  of  iso- 
lation to  check  immigration,  is  necessary  in  order  that 
new  and  unoccupied  places  should  be  left  for  natural 
selection  to  fill  up  by  improving  some  of  the  varying 
inhabitants.  For  as  all  the  inhabitants  of  each  coun- 
try are  struggling  together  with  nicely  balanced 
forces,  extremely  slight  modifications  in  the  struc- 
ture or  habits  of  one  species  would  often  give  it  an 
advantage  over  others;  and  still  further  modifications 
of  the  same  kind  would  often  still  further  increase 
the  advantage,  as  long  as  the  species  continued  under 
the  same  conditions  of  life  and  profited  by  similar 
means  of  subsistence  and  defence.  No  country  can 
be  named  in  which  all  the  native  inhabitants  are  now 


I486  THE  STORY  OF  THE   UNIVERSE 

so  perfectly  adapted  to  each  other  and  to  the  physi- 
cal conditions  under  which  they  live,  that  none  of 
them  could  be  still  better  adapted  or  improved;  for 
in  all  countries  the  natives  have  been  so  far  conquered 
by  naturalized  productions  that  they  have  allowed 
some  foreigners  to  take  firm  possession  of  the  land. 
And  as  foreigners  have  thus  in  every  country  beaten 
some  of  the  natives,  we  may  safely  conclude  that  the 
natives  might  have  been  modified  with  advantage,  so 
as  to  have  better  resisted  the  intruders. 

As  man  can  produce,  and  certainly  has  produced,  a 
great  result  by  his  methodical  and  unconscious  means 
of  selection,  what  may  not  natural  selection  effect? 
Ma«  can  act  only  on  external  and  visible  characters: 
Nature,  if  I  may  be  allowed  to  personify  the  natural 
preservation  or  survival  of  the  fittest,  cares  nothing 
for  appearances,  except  in  so  far  as  they  are  useful  to 
any  being.  She  can  act  on  every  internal  organ,  on 
every  shade  of  constitutional  difference,  on  the  whole 
machinery  of  life.  Man  selects  only  for  his  own 
good:  Nature  only  for  that  of  the  being  which  she 
tends.  Every  selected  character  is  fully  exercised 
by  her,  as  is  implied  by  the  fact  of  their  selection. 
Man  keeps  the  natives  of  many  climates  in  the  same 
country;  he  seldom  exercises  each  selected  character 
in  some  peculiar  and  fitting  manner;  he  feeds  a  long 
and  a  short-beaked  pigeon  on  the  same  food;  he  does 
not  exercise  a  long-backed  or  long-legged  quadruped 
in  any  peculiar  manner;  he  exposes  sheep  with  long 
and  short  wool  to  the  same  climate.  He  does  not 
allow  the  most  vigorous  males  to  struggle  for  the 
females.  He  does  not  rigidly  destroy  all  inferior 


NATURAL  SELECTION 

animals,  but  protects  during  each  varying  season,  as 
far  as  lies  in  his  power,  all  his  productions.  He  often 
begins  his  selection  by  some  half-monstrous  form;  or 
at  least  by  some  modification  prominent  enough  to 
catch  the  eye  or  to  be  plainly  useful  to  him.  Under 
Nature,  the  slightest  differences  of  structure  or  con- 
stitution may  well  turn  the  nicely  balanced  scale  in 
the  struggle  for  life,  and  so  be  preserved.  How  fleet- 
ing are  the  wishes  and  efforts  of  man!  how  short  his 
time !  and  consequently  how  poor  will  be  his  results, 
compared  with  those  accumulated  by  Nature  during 
whole  geological  periods !  Can  we  wonder,  then,  that 
Nature's  productions  should  be  far  "truer"  in  char- 
acter than,  man's  productions;  that  they  should  be 
infinitely  better  adapted  to  the  most  complex  condi- 
tions of  life,  and  should  plainly  bear  the  stamp  of  far 
higher  workmanship? 

It  may  metaphorically  be  said  that  natural  selec- 
tion is  daily  and  hourly  scrutinizing,  throughout  the 
world,  the  slightest  variations;  rejecting  those  that 
are  bad,  preserving  and  adding  up  all  that  are  good; 
silently  and  insensibly  working,  whenever  and  wher- 
ever opportunity  offers,  at  the  improvement  of  each 
organic  being  in  relation  to  its  organic  and  inorganic 
conditions  of  life.  We  see  nothing  of  these  slow 
changes  in  progress,  until  the  hand  of  time  has 
marked  the  lapse  of  ages,  and  then  so  imperfect  is 
our  view  into  long-past  geological  ages,  that  we  see 
only  that  the  forms  of  life  are  now  different  from 
what  they  formerly  were. 

In  order  that  any  great  amount  of  modification 
should  be  effected  in  a  species,  a  variety  when  once 


1488  THE  STORY   OF  THE   UNIVERSE 

formed  must  again,  perhaps  after  a  long  interval  of 
time,  vary  or  present  individual  differences  of  the 
same  favorable  nature  as  before;  and  these  must  be 
again  preserved,  and  so  onward  step  by  step.  Seeing 
that  individual  differences  of  the  same  kind  perpet- 
ually recur,  this  can  hardly  be  considered  as  an  un- 
warrantable assumption.  But  whether  it  is  true,  we 
can  judge  only  by  seeing  how  far  the  hypothesis  ac- 
cords with  and  explains  the  general  phenomena  of 
nature.  On  the  other  hand,  the  ordinary  belief  that 
the  amount  of  possible  variation  is  a  strictly  limited 
quantity  is  likewise  a  simple  assumption. 

Although  natural  selection  can  act  only  through 
and  for  the  good  of  each  being,  yet  characters  and 
structures,  which  we  are  apt  to  consider  as  of  very 
trifling  importance,  may  thus  be  acted  on.  When  we 
see  leaf-eating  insects  green,  and  bark-feeders  mot- 
tled-gray; the  Alpine  ptarmigan  white  in  winter,  the 
red  grouse  the  color  of  heather,  we  must  believe  that 
these  tints  are  of  service  to  these  birds  and  insects  in 
preserving  them  from  danger.  Grouse,  if  not  de- 
stroyed at  some  period  of  their  lives,  would  increase 
in  countless  numbers;  they  are  known  to  suffer 
largely  from  birds  of  prey;  and  hawks  are  guided 
by  eyesight  to  their  prey — so  much  so,  that  on  parts 
of  the  Continent  persons  are  warned  not  to  keep 
white  pigeons,  as  being  the  most  liable  to  destruc- 
tion. Hence  natural  selection  might  be  effective  in 
giving  the  proper  color  to  each  kind  of  grouse,  and 
in  keeping  that  color,  when  once  acquired,  true  and 
constant.  Nor  ought  we  to  think  that  the  occasional 
destruction  of  an  animal  of  any  particular  color 


NATURAL   SELECTION  1489 

would  produce  little  effect:  we  should  remember 
how  essential  it  is  in  a  flock  of  white  sheep  to  destroy 
a  lamb  with  the  faintest  trace  of  black.  In  plants, 
the  down  on  the  fruit  and  the  color  of  the  flesh  are 
considered  by  botanists  as  characters  of  the  most 
trifling  importance:  yet  we  hear  from  an  excellent 
horticulturist,  Downing,  that  in  the  United  States 
smooth-skinned  fruits  suffer  far  more  from  a  beetle, 
a  Curculio,  than  those  with  down;  that  purple  plums 
suffer  far  more  from  a  certain  disease  than  yellow 
plums ;  whereas  another  disease  attacks  yellow-fleshed 
peaches  far  more  than  those  with  other  colored  flesh. 
If,  with  all  the  aids  of  art,  these  slight  differences 
make  a  great  difference  in  cultivating  the  several  va- 
rieties, assuredly,  in  a  state  of  nature,  where  the  trees 
would  have  to  struggle  with  other  trees  and  with  a 
host  of  enemies,  such  differences  would  effectually 
settle  which  variety,  whether  a  smooth  or  downy,  a 
yellow  or  purple  fleshed  fruit,  should  succeed. 

In  looking  at  many  small  points  of  difference  be- 
tween species,  which,  as  far  as  our  ignorance  permits 
us  to  judge,  seem  quite  unimportant,  we  must  not 
forget  that  climate,  food,  etc.,  have  no  doubt  pro- 
duced some  direct  effect.  It  is  also  necessary  to  bear 
in  mind  that,  owing  to  the  law  of  correlation,  when 
one  part  varies,  and  the  variations  are  accumulated 
through  natural  selection,  other  modifications,  often 
of  the  most  unexpected  nature,  will  ensue. 

Natural  selection  will  modify  the  structure  of  the 
young  in  relation  to  the  parent,  and  of  the  parent  in 
relation  to  the  young.  In  social  animals  it  will  adapt 
the  structure  of  each  individual  for  the  benefit  of  the 


1490  THE   STORY   OF  THE   UNIVERSE 

whole  community;  if  the  community  profits  by  the 
selected  change.  What  natural  selection  can  not  do 
is  to  modify  the  structure  of  one  species,  without  giv- 
ing it  any  advantage,  for  the  good  of  another  species; 
and  though  statements  to  this  effect  may  be  found  in 
works  of  natural  history,  I  can  not  find  one  case 
which  will  bear  investigation.  A  structure  used 
only  once  in  an  animal's  life,  if  of  high  importance 
to  it,  might  be  modified  to  any  extent  by  natural  se- 
lection; for  instance,  the  great  jaws  possessed  by  cer- 
tain insects,  used  exclusively  for  opening  the  cocoon 
— or  the  hard  tip  to  the  beak  of  unhatched  birds,  used 
for  breaking  the  egg.  It  has  been  asserted  that  of 
the  best  short-beaked  tumbler-pigeons  a  greater  num- 
ber perish  in  the  egg  than  are  able  to  get  out  of  it;  so 
that  fanciers  assist  in  the  act  of  hatching.  Now  if 
nature  had  to  make  the  beak  of  a  full-grown  pigeon 
short  for  the  bird's  own  advantage,  the  process  of 
modification  would  be  very  slow  and  there  would  be 
simultaneously  the  most  rigorous  selection  of  all  the 
young  birds  within  the  egg,  which  had  the  most  pow- 
erful and  hardest  beaks,  for  all  with  weak  beaks 
would  inevitably  perish ;  or,  more  delicate  and  more 
easily  broken  shells  might  be  selected,  the  thickness 
of  the  shell  being  known  to  vary  like  every  other 
structure. 

Inasmuch  as  peculiarities  often  appear  under  do- 
mestication in  one  sex  and  become  hereditarily  at- 
tached to  that  sex,  so  no  doubt  it  will  be  under  nature. 
Thus  it  is  rendered  possible  for  the  two  sexes  to  be 
modified  through  natural  selection  in  relation  to  dif- 
ferent habits  of  life,  as  is  sometimes  the  case;  or  for 


NATURAL  SELECTION  1491 

one  sex  to  be  modified  in  relation  to  the  other  sex, 
as  commonly  occurs.  This  leads  me  to  say  a  few 
words  on  what  I  have  called  Sexual  Selection.  This 
form  of  selection  depends,  not  on  a  struggle  for  ex- 
istence in  relation  to  other  organic  beings  or  to  ex- 
ternal conditions,  but  on  a  struggle  between  the  indi- 
viduals of  one  sex,  generally  the  males,  for  the  pos- 
session of  the  other  sex.  The  result  is  not  death  to 
the  unsuccessful  competitor,  but  few  or  no  offspring. 
Sexual  selection  is,  therefore,  less  rigorous  than  natu- 
ral selection.  Generally,  the  most  vigorous  males, 
those  which  are  best  fitted  for  their  places  in  nature, 
will  leave  most  progeny.  But  in  many  cases,  victory 
depends  not  so  much  on  general  vigor  as  on  having 
special  weapons,  confined  to  the  male  sex.  A  horn- 
less stag  or  spurless  cock  would  have  a  poor  chance  of 
leaving  numerous  offspring.  Sexual  selection,  by  al- 
ways allowing  the  victor  to  breed,  might  surely  give 
indomitable  courage,  length  to  the  spur,  and  strength 
to  the  wing  to  strike  in  the  spurred  leg,  in  nearly  the 
same  manner  as  does  the  brutal  cockfighter  by  the  care- 
ful selection  of  his  best  cocks.  How  low  in  the  scale 
of  nature  the  law  of  battle  descends  I  know  not;  male 
alligators  have  been  described  as  fighting,  bellowing, 
and  whirling  round,  like  Indians  in  a  war-dance,  for 
the  possession  of  the  females;  male  salmon  have  been 
observed  fighting  all  day  long;  male  stag-beetles 
sometimes  bear  wounds  from  the  huge  mandibles  of 
other  males;  the  males  of  certain  hymenopterous  in- 
sects have  been  frequently  seen  by  that  inimitable  ob- 
server, M.  Fabre,  fighting  for  a  particular  female 
who  sits  by,  an  apparently  unconcerned  beholder  of 


1492  THE   STORY   OF  THE   UNIVERSE 

the  struggle,  and  then  retires  with  the  conqueror. 
The  war  is,  perhaps,  severest  between  the  males  of 
polygamous  animals,  and  these  seem  oftenest  pro- 
vided with  special  weapons.  The  males  of  carniv- 
orous animals  are  already  well  armed;  though  to 
them  and  to  others  special  means  of  defence  may  be 
given  through  means  of  sexual  selection,  as  the  mane 
of  the  lion  and  the  hooked  jaw  to  the  male  salmon; 
for  the  shield  may  be  as  important  for  victory  as  the 
sword  or  spear. 

Among  birds,  the  contest  is  often  of  a  more  peace- 
ful character.  All  those  who  have  attended  to  the 
subject  believe  that  there  is  the  severest  rivalry  be- 
tween the  males  of  many  species  to  attract,  by  singing, 
the  females.  The  rock-thrush  of  Guiana,  birds  of 
paradise,  and  some  others,  congregate ;  and  successive 
males  display  with  the  most  elaborate  care,  and  show 
off  in  the  best  manner,  their  gorgeous  plumage;  they 
likewise  perform  strange  antics  before  the  females, 
which,  standing  by  as  spectators,  at  last  choose  the 
most  attractive  partner.  Those  who  have  closely  at- 
tended to  birds  in  confinement  well  know  that  they, 
often  take  individual  preferences  and  dislikes:  thus 
Sir  R.  Heron  has  described  how  a  pied  peacock  was 
eminently  attractive  to  all  his  hen  birds.  I  can  not 
here  enter  on  the  necessary  details;  but  if  man  can  in 
a  short  time  give  beauty  and  an  elegant  carriage  to 
his  bantams,  according  to  his  standard  of  beauty,  I 
can  see  no  good  reason  to  doubt  that  female  birds,  by 
selecting,  during  thousands  of  generations,  the  most 
melodious  or  beautiful  males,  according  to  their 
standard  of  beauty,  might  produce  a  marked  effect 


NATURAL  SELECTION  1493 

Some  well-known  laws,  with  respect  to  the  plumage 
of  male  and  female  birds,  in  comparison  with  the 
plumage  of  the  young,  can  partly  be  explained 
through  the  action  of  sexual  selection  on  variations 
occurring  at  different  ages,  and  transmitted  to  the 
males  alone  or  to  both  sexes  at  corresponding  ages. 

Thus  it  is,  as  I  believe,  that  when  the  males  and 
females  of  any  animal  have  the  same  general  habits 
of  life,  but  differ  in  structure,  color,  or  ornament, 
such  differences  have  been  mainly  caused  by  sexual 
selection:  that  is,  by  individual  males  having  had,  in 
successive  generations,  some  slight  advantage  over 
other  males,  in  their  weapons,  means  of  defence,  or 
charms,  which  they  have  transmitted  to  their  male 
offspring  alone.  Yet,  I  would  not  wish  to  attribute 
all  sexual  differences  to  this  agency:  for  we  see  in 
our  domestic  animals  peculiarities  arising  and  be- 
coming attached  to  the  male  sex,  which  apparently 
have  not  been  augmented  through  selection  by  man. 
The  tuft  of  hair  on  the  breast  of  the  wild  turkey- 
cock  can  not  be  of  any  use,  and  it  is  doubtful  whether 
it  can  be  ornamental  in  the  eyes  of  the  female  bird ; — 
indeed,  had  the  tuft  appeared  under  domestication, 
it  would  have  been  called  a  monstrosity. 

In  order  to  make  it  clear  how,  as  I  believe,  natural 
selection  acts,  I  must  beg  permission  to  give  one  or 
two  imaginary  illustrations.  Let  us  take  the  case  of 
a  wolf,  which  preys  on  various  animals,  securing 
some  by  craft,  some  by  strength,  and  some  by  fleet- 
ness;  and  let  us  suppose  that  the  fleetest  prey,  a  deer, 
for  instance,  had  from  any  change  in  the  country  in- 
creased in  numbers,  or  that  other  prey  had  decreased 


1494:  THE  STORY  OF  THE   UNIVERSE 

in  numbers,  during  that  season  of  the  year  when  the 
wolf  was  hardest  pressed  for  food.  Under  such  cir- 
cumstances the  swiftest  and  slimmest  wolves  would 
have  the  best  chance  of  surviving  and  so  be  preserved 
or  selected — provided  always  that  they  retained 
strength  to  master  their  prey  at  this  or  some  other 
period  of  the  year,  when  they  were  compelled  to  prey 
on  other  animals.  I  can  see  no  more  reason  to  doubt 
that  this  would  be  the  result  than  that  man  should  be 
able  to  improve  the  fleetness  of  his  greyhounds  by 
careful  and  methodical  selection,  or  by  that  kind  of 
unconscious  selection  which  follows  from  each  man 
trying  to  keep  the  best  dogs  without  any  thought  of 
modifying  the  breed.  I  may  add,  that,  according  to 
Mr.  Pierce,  there  are  two  varieties  of  the  wolf  in- 
habiting the  Catskill  Mountains,  in  the  United  States, 
one  with  a  light  greyhound-like  form,  which  pursues 
deer,  and  the  other  more  bulky,  with  shorter  legs, 
which  more  frequently  attacks  the  shepherd's  flocks. 
To  the  effects  of  intercrossing  in  eliminating  va- 
riations of  all  kinds,  I  shall  have  to  recur;  but  it  may 
be  here  remarked  that  most  animals  and  plants  keep 
to  their  proper  homes,  and  do  not  needlessly  wander 
about;  we  see  this  even  with  migratory  birds,  which 
almost  always  return  to  the  same  spot.  Consequently 
each  newly  formed  variety  would  generally  be  at 
first  local,  as  seems  to  be  the  common  rule  with  va- 
rieties in  a  state  of  nature;  so  that  similarly  modified 
individuals  would  soon  exist  in  a  small  body  together, 
and  would  often  breed  together.  If  the  new  variety 
were  successful  in  its  battle  for  life,  it  would  slowly 
spread  from  a  central  district,  competing  with  and 


Beautiful'  and  Curious  Shells 

Strombus;  2,  Chama;  3,  Struthiolaria;  4,  Tridacna;  5,  Hippopus;  6,  RaneL 
7,  Pteroceras;  8,  10,  Murex;  9,  Terebra 


NATURAL  SELECTION  1495 

conquering  the  unchanged  individuals  on  the  mar- 
gins of  an  ever-increasing  circle. 

It  may  be  worth  while  to  give  another  and  more 
complex  illustration  of  the  action  of  natural  selec- 
tion. Certain  plants  excrete  sweet  juice,  apparently 
for  the  sake  of  eliminating  something  injurious  from 
the  sap :  this  is  effected,  for  instance,  by  glands  at  the 
base  of  the  stipules  in  some  Leguminosae,  and  at  the 
backs  of  the  leaves  of  the  common  laurel.  This  juice, 
though  small  in  quantity,  is  greedily  sought  by  in- 
sects; but  their  visits  do  not  in  any  way  benefit  the 
plant  Now,  let  us  suppose  that  the  juice  or  nectar 
was  excreted  from  the  inside  of  the  flowers  of  a  cer- 
tain number  of  plants  of  any  species.  Insects  in  seek- 
ing the  nectar  would  get  dusted  with  pollen,  and 
would  often  transport  it  from  one  flower  to  another. 
The  flowers  of  two  distinct  individuals  of  the  same 
species  would  thus  get  crossed ;  and  the  act  of  cross- 
ing, as  can  be  fully  proved,  gives  rise  to  vigorous 
seedlings,  which  consequently  would  have  the  best 
chance  of  flourishing  and  surviving.  The  plants 
which  produced  flowers  with  the  largest  glands  or 
nectaries,  excreting  most  nectar,  would  oftenest  be 
visited  by  insects,  and  would  oftenest  be  crossed ;  and 
so  in  the  long  run  would  gain  the  upper  hand  and 
form  a  local  variety.  The  flowers,  also,  which  had 
their  stamens  and  pistils  placed,  in  relation  to  the 
size  and  habits  of  the  particular  insect  which  visited 
them,  so  as  to  favor  in  any  degree  the  transportal  of 
the  pollen,  would  likewise  be  favored.  We  might 
have  taken  the  case  of  insects  visiting  flowers  for  the 
sake  of  collecting  pollen  instead  of  nectar;  and  as 

J  VOL.  IV. 


14:96  THE  STORY   OF  THE   UNIVERSE 

pollen  is  formed  for  the  sole  purpose  of  fertilization, 
its  destruction  appears  to  be  a  simple  loss  to  the  plant; 
yet  if  a  little  pollen  were  carried,  at  first  occasionally 
and  then  habitually,  by  the  pollen-devouring  insects 
from  flower  to  flower,  and  a  cross  thus  effected,  al- 
though nine-tenths  of  the  pollen  were  destroyed  it 
might  still  be  a  great  gain  to  the  plant  to  be  thus 
robbed;  and  the  individuals  which  produced  more 
and  more  pollen,  and  had  larger  anthers,  would  be 
selected. 

When  our  plant,  by  the  above  process  long  con- 
tinued, had  been  rendered  highly  attractive  to  in- 
sects, they  would,  unintentionally  on  their  part,  regu- 
larly carry  pollen  from  flower  to  flower;  and  that 
they  do  this  effectually,  I  could  easily  show  by  many 
striking  facts. 

Let  us  now  turn  to  the  nectar-feeding  insects;  we 
may  suppose  the  plant,  of  which  we  have  been  slowly 
increasing  the  nectar  by  continued  selection,  to  be  a 
common  plant;  and  that  certain  insects  depended  in 
main  part  on  its  nectar  for  food.  I  could  give  many 
facts  showing  how  anxious  bees  are  to  save  time:  for 
instance,  their  habit  of  cutting  holes  and  sucking  the 
nectar  at  the  bases  of  certain  flowers,  which  with  a 
very  little  more  trouble  they  can  enter  by  the  mouth. 
Bearing  such  facts  in  mind,  it  may  be  believed  that 
under  certain  circumstances  individual  differences  in 
the  curvature  or  length  of  the  proboscis,  etc.,  too 
slight  to  be  appreciated  by  us,  might  profit  a  bee  or 
other  insect,  so  that  certain  individuals  would  be 
able  to  obtain  their  food  more  quickly  than  others; 
and  thus  the  communities  to  which  they  belonged 


NATURAL  SELECTION  1497 

would  flourish  and  throw  off  many  swarms  inheriting 
the  same  peculiarities.  The  tubes  of  the  corolla  of 
the  common  red  and  incarnate  clovers  (Trifolium 
pratense  and  incarnatum)  do  not  on  a  hasty  glance 
appear  to  differ  in  length;  yet  the  hive-bee  can  easily 
suck  the  nectar  out  of  the  incarnate  clover,  but  not 
out  of  the  common  red  clover,  which  is  visited  by 
bumblebees  alone;  so  that  whole  fields  of  the  red 
clover  offer  in  vain  an  abundant  supply  of  precious 
nectar  to  the  hive-bee.  That  this  nectar  is  much  liked 
by  the  hive-bee  is  certain;  for  I  have  repeatedly  seen, 
but  only  in  the  autumn,  many  hive-bees  sucking  the 
flowers  through  holes  bitten  in  the  base  of  the  tube 
by  bumblebees.  The  difference  in  the  length  of  the 
corolla  in  the  two  kinds  of  clover,  which  determines 
the  visits  of  the  hive-bee,  must  be  very  trifling;  for 
I  have  been  assured  that  when  red  clover  has  been 
mown,  the  flowers  of  the  second  crop  are  somewhat 
smaller,  and  that  these  are  visited  by  many  hive-bees. 
I  do  not  know  whether  this  statement  is  accurate;  nor 
whether  another  published  statement  can  be  trusted, 
namely,  that  the  Ligurian  bee,  which  is  generally 
considered  a  mere  variety  of  the  common  hive-bee, 
and  which  freely  crosses  with  it,  is  able  to  reach  and 
suck  the  nectar  of  the  red  clover.  Thus,  in  a  coun- 
try where  this  kind  of  clover  abounded,  it  might  be 
a  great  advantage  to  the  hive-bee  to  have  a  slightly 
longer  or  differently  constructed  proboscis.  On  the 
other  hand,  as  the  fertility  of  this  clover  absolutely 
depends  on  bees  visiting  the  flowers,  if  bumblebees 
were  to  become  rare  in  any  country,  it  might  be  a 
great  advantage  to  the  plant  to  have  a  shorter  or  more 


14:98  THE   STORY   OF  THE   UNIVERSE 

deeply  divided  corolla,  so  that  the  hive-bees  should 
be  enabled  to  suck  its  flowers.  Thus  I  can  under- 
stand how  a  flower  and  a  bee  might  slowly  become, 
either  simultaneously  or  one  after  the  other,  modified 
and  adapted  to  each  other  in  the  most  perfect  man- 
ner, by  the  continued  preservation  of  all  the  indi- 
viduals which  presented  slight  deviations  of  struc- 
ture mutually  favorable  to  each  other. 

I  must  here  introduce  a  short  digression.  In  the 
case  of  animals  and  plants  with  separated  sexes,  it  is 
of  course  obvious  that  two  individuals  must  always 
(with  the  exception  of  the  curious  and  not  well  un- 
derstood cases  of  parthenogenesis)  unite  for  each 
birth;  but  in  the  case  of  hermaphrodites  this  is 
far  from  obvious.  Nevertheless  there  is  reason  to  be- 
lieve that  with  all  hermaphrodites  two  individuals, 
either  occasionally  or  habitually,  concur  for  the  re- 
production of  their  kind.  This  view  was  long  ago 
doubtfully  suggested  by  Sprengel,  Knight,  and  K61- 
reuter.  We  shall  presently  see  its  importance;  but  I 
must  here  treat  the  subject  with  extreme  brevity, 
though  I  have  the  materials  prepared  for  an  ample 
discussion.  All  vertebrate  animals,  all  insects,  and 
some  other  large  groups  of  animals,  pair  for  each 
birth.  Modern  research  has  much  diminished  the 
number  of  supposed  hermaphrodites;  and  of  real 
hermaphrodites  a  large  number  pair;  that  is,  two 
individuals  regularly  unite  for  reproduction,  which 
is  all  that  concerns  us.  But  still  there  are  many  her- 
maphrodite animals  which  certainly  do  not  habitu- 
ally pair,  and  a  vast  majority  of  plants  are  hermaph- 
rodites. What  reason,  it  may  be  asked,  is  there 


NATURAL  SELECTION  1499 

for  supposing  in  these  cases  that  two  individuals  ever 
concur  in  reproduction?  As  it  is  impossible  here  to 
enter  on  details,  I  must  trust  to  some  general  con- 
siderations alone. 

In  the  first  place,  I  have  collected  so  large  a  body 
of  facts,  and  made  so  many  experiments,  showing, 
in  accordance  with  the  almost  universal  belief  of 
breeders,  that  with  animals  and  plants  a  cross  between 
different  varieties,  or  between  individuals  of  the  same 
variety  but  of  another  strain,  gives  vigor  and  fertility 
to  the  offspring;  and,  on  the  other  hand,  that  close 
interbreeding  diminishes  vigor  and  fertility;  that 
these  facts  alone  incline  me  to  believe  that  it  is  a  gen- 
eral law  of  nature  that  no  organic  being  fertilizes 
itself  for  a  perpetuity  of  generations ;  but  that  a  cross 
with  another  individual  is  occasionally — perhaps  at 
long  intervals  of  time — indispensable. 

Turning  for  a  brief  space  to  animals;  various  ter- 
restrial species  are  hermaphrodites,  such  as  the  land- 
mollusca  and  earthworms;  but  these  all  pair.  As 
yet  I  have  not  found  a  single  terrestrial  animal  which 
can  fertilize  itself.  This  remarkable  fact,  which 
offers  so  strong  a  contrast  with  terrestrial  plants,  is 
intelligible  on  the  view  of  an  occasional  cross  being 
indispensable ;  for  owing  to  the  nature  of  the  fertil- 
izing element  there  are  no  means,  analogous  to  the 
action  of  insects  and  of  the  wind  with  plants,  by 
which  an  occasional  cross  could  be  effected  with  ter- 
restrial animals  without  the  concurrence  of  two  in- 
dividuals. Of  aquatic  animals,  there  are  many  self- 
fertilizing  hermaphrodites;  but  here  the  currents  of 
water  offer  an  obvious  means  for  an  occasional  cross. 


1500  THE   STORY  OF  THE   UNIVERSE 

As  in  the  case  of  flowers,  I  have  as  yet  failed,  after 
consultation  with  one  of  the  highest  authorities, 
namely,  Professor  Huxley,  to  discover  a  single  her- 
maphrodite animal  with  the  organs  of  reproduction 
so  perfectly  inclosed  that  access  from  without,  and 
the  occasional  influence  of  a  distinct  individual,  can 
be  shown  to  be  physically  impossible.  Cirripeds  long 
appeared  to  me  to  present,  under  this  point  of  view, 
a  case  of  great  difficulty;  but  I  have  been  enabled, 
by  a  fortunate  chance,  to  prove  that  two  individuals, 
though  both  are  self-fertilizing  hermaphrodites,  do 
sometimes  cross. 

It  must  have  struck  most  naturalists  as  a  strange 
anomaly  that,  both  with  animals  and  plants,  some  spe- 
cies of  the  same  family  and  even  of  the  same  genus, 
though  agreeing  closely  with  each  other  in  their 
whole  organization,  are  hermaphrodites,  and  some 
unisexual.  But  if,  in  fact,  all  hermaphrodites  do  oc- 
casionally intercross,  the  difference  between  them 
and  unisexual  species  is,  as  far  as  function  is  con- 
cerned, very  small. 

From  these  several  considerations  and  from  the 
many  special  facts  which  I  have  collected,  but  which 
I  am  unable  here  to  give,  it  appears  that  with  animals 
and  plants  an  occasional  intercross  between  distinct 
individuals  is  a  very  general,  if  not  universal,  law  of 
nature. 

To  sum  up,  as  far  as  the  extreme  intricacy  of  the 
subject  permits,  the  circumstances  favorable  and  un- 
favorable for  the  production  of  new  species  through 
natural  selection.  I  conclude  that  for  terrestrial  pro- 
ductions a  large  continental  area,  which  has  under- 


NATURAL   SELECTION  1501 

gone  many  oscillations  of  level,  will  have  been  the 
most  favorable  for  the  production  of  any  new  forms 
of  life,  fitted  to  endure  for  a  long  time  and  to  spread 
widely.  While  the  area  existed  as  a  continent,  the 
inhabitants  will  have  been  numerous  in  individuals 
and  kinds,  and  will  have  been  subjected  to  severe 
competition.  When  converted  by  subsidence  into 
large  separate  islands,  there  will  still  have  existed 
many  individuals  of  the  same  species  on  each  isl- 
and :  intercrossing  on  the  confines  of  the  range  of 
each  new  species  will  have  been  checked :  after  physi- 
cal changes  of  any  kind,  immigration  will  have  been 
prevented,  so  that  new  places  in  the  polity  of  each 
island  will  have  had  to  be  filled  up  by  the  modifica- 
tion of  the  old  inhabitants;  and  time  will  have  been 
allowed  for  the  varieties  in  each  to  become  well 
modified  and  perfected.  When,  by  renewed  eleva- 
tion, the  islands  were  reconverted  into  a  continental 
area,  there  will  again  have  been  very  severe  compe- 
tition :  the  most  favored  or  improved  varieties  will 
have  been  enabled  to  spread:  there  will  have  been 
much  extinction  of  the  less  improved  forms,  and  the 
relative  proportional  numbers  of  the  various  inhabi- 
tants of  the  reunited  continent  will  again  have  been 
changed;  and  again  there  will  have  been  a  fair  field 
for  natural  selection  to  improve  still  further  the  in- 
habitants, and  thus  to  produce  new  species. 

That  natural  selection  generally  acts  with  extreme 
slowness  I  fully  admit.  It  can  act  only  when  there 
are  places  in  the  natural  polity  of  a  district  which  can 
be  better  occupied  by  the  modification  of  some  of  its 
existing  inhabitants.  The  occurrence  of  such  places 


1502  THE   STORY   OF  THE   UNIVERSE 

will  often  depend  on  physical  changes,  which  gen- 
erally take  place  very  slowly,  and  on  the  immigra- 
tion of  better  adapted  forms  being  prevented.  As 
some  few  of  the  old  inhabitants  become  modified,  the 
mutual  relations  of  others  will  often  be  disturbed; 
and  this  will  create  new  places,  ready  to  be  filled 
up  by  better  adapted  forms;  but  all  this  will  take 
place  very  slowly.  Although  all  the  individuals  of 
the  same  species  differ  in  some  slight  degree  from 
each  other,  it  would  often  be  long  before  differences 
of  the  right  nature  in  various  parts  of  the  organiza- 
tion might  occur.  The  result  would  often  be  greatly 
retarded  by  free  intercrossing.  Many  will  exclaim 
that  these  several  causes  are  amply  sufficient  to  neu- 
tralize the  power  of  natural  selection.  I  do  not  be- 
lieve so.  But  I  do  believe  that  natural  selection  will 
generally  act  very  slowly,  only  at  long  intervals  of 
time,  and  only  on  a  few  of  the  inhabitants  of  the  same 
region.  I  further  believe  that  these  slow,  intermit- 
tent results  accord  well  with  what  geology  tells  us 
of  the  rate  °nd  manner  at  which  the  inhabitants  of 
the  world  have  changed. 

Slow  though  the  process  of  selection  may  be,  if 
feeble  man  can  do  much  by  artificial  selection,  I  can 
see  no  limit  to  the  amount  of  change,  to  the  beauty 
and  complexity  of  the  coadaptations  between  all  or- 
ganic beings,  one  with  another  and  with  their  physi- 
cal conditions  of  life,  which  may  have  been  effected 
in  the  long  course  of  time  through  nature's  power  of 
selection,  that  is,  by  the  survival  of  the  fittest. 

Natural  selection  acts  solely  through  the  preser- 
vation of  variations  in  some  way  advantageous,  which 


NATURAL  SELECTION  1503 

consequently  endure.  Owing  to  the  high  geometrical 
rate  of  increase  of  all  organic  beings,  each  area  is 
already  fully  stocked  with  inhabitants;  and  it  fol- 
lows from  this,  that  as  the  favored  forms  increase  in 
number,  so,  generally,  will  the  less  favored  decrease 
and  become  rare.  Rarity,  as  geology  tells  us,  is  the 
precursor  to  extinction.  We  can  see  that  any  form 
which  is  represented  by  few  individuals  will  run  a 
good  chance  of  utter  extinction,  during  great  fluc- 
tuations in  the  nature  of  the  seasons,  or  from  a  tem- 
porary increase  in  the  number  of  its  enemies.  But  we 
may  go  further  than  this;  for,  as  new  forms  are  pro- 
duced, unless  we  admit  that  specific  forms  can  go  on 
indefinitely  increasing  in  number,  many  old  forms 
must  become  extinct.  That  the  number  of  specific 
forms  has  not  indefinitely  increased,  geology  plainly 
tells  us ;  and  we  shall  attempt  to  show  why  it  is  that 
the  number  of  species  throughout  the  world  has  not 
become  immeasurably  great. 

We  have  seen  that  the  species  which  are  most  nu- 
merous in  individuals  have  the  best  chance  of  pro- 
ducing favorable  variations  within  any  given  period. 
It  is  the  common  and  diffused  or  dominant  species 
which  offer  the  greatest  number  of  recorded  vari- 
eties. Hence,  rare  species  will  be  less  quickly  modi- 
fied or  improved  within  any  given  period;  they  will 
consequently  be  beaten  in  the  race  for  life  by  the 
modified  and  improved  descendants  of  the  com- 
moner species. 

From  these  several  considerations  I  think  it  inevi- 
tably follows  that  as  new  species  in  the  course  of  time 
are  formed  through  natural  selection,  others  will  be- 


1504  THE   STORY   OF  THE   UNIVERSE 

come  rarer  and  rarer,  and  finally  extinct.  The  forms 
which  stand  in  closest  competition  with  those  under- 
going modification  and  improvement  will  naturally 
suffer  most.  And  we  have  seen  in  the  chapter  on 
the  Struggle  for  Existence  that  it  is  the  most  closely 
allied  forms — varieties  of  the  same  species,  and  spe- 
cies of  the  same  genus  or  of  related  genera — which, 
from  having  nearly  the  same  structure,  constitution, 
and  habits,  generally  come  into  the  severest  compe- 
tition with  each  other;  consequently,  each  new  vari- 
ety or  species,  during  the  progress  of  its  formation, 
will  generally  press  hardest  on  its  nearest  kindred, 
and  tend  to  exterminate  them.  We  see  the  same 
process  of  extermination  among  our  domesticated 
productions,  through  the  selection  of  improved  forms 
by  man.  Many  curious  instances  could  be  given 
snowing  how  quickly  new  breeds  of  cattle,  sheep,  and 
other  animals,,  and  varieties  of  flowers,  take  the  place 
of  older  and  inferior  kinds.  In  Yorkshire,  it  is  his- 
torically known  that  the  ancient  black  cattle  were 
displaced  by  the  long-horns,  and  that  these  "were 
swept  away  by  the  short-horns"  (I  quote  the  words 
of  an  agricultural  writer)  "as  if  by  some  murderous 
pestilence." 

Divergence  of  character  is  of  high  importance,  and 
explains,  as  I  believe,  several  important  facts.  In  the 
first  place,  varieties,  even  strongly  marked  ones, 
though  having  somewhat  of  the  character  of  species 
— as  is  shown  by  the  hopeless  doubts  in  many  cases  of 
how  to  rank  them — yet  certainly  differ  far  less  from 
each  other  than  do  good  and  distinct  species.  Never- 
theless, according  to  my  view,  varieties  are  species 


NATURAL   SELECTION  1505 

in  the  process  of  formation,  or  are,  as  I  have  called 
them,  incipient  species.  How,  then,  does  the  lesser 
difference  between  varieties  become  augmented  into 
the  greater  difference  between  species?  That  this 
does  habitually  happen,  we  must  infer  from  most  of 
the  innumerable  species  throughout  nature  present- 
ing well-marked  differences,  whereas  varieties,  the 
supposed  prototypes  and  parents  of  future  well- 
marked  species,  present  slight  and  ill-defined  dif- 
ferences. Mere  chance,  as  we  may  call  it,  might 
cause  one  variety  to  differ  in  some  character  from  its 
parents,  and  the  offspring  of  this  variety  again  to 
differ  from  its  parent  in  the  very  same  character  and 
in  a  greater  degree;  but  this  alone  would  never  ac- 
count for  so  habitual  and  large  a  degree  of  differ- 
ence as  that  between  the  species  of  the  same  genus. 
As  has  always  been  my  practice,  I  have  sought 
light  on  this  head  from  our  domestic  productions. 
We  shall  here  find  something  analogous.  It  will  be 
admitted  that  the  production  of  races  so  different 
as  short-horn  and  Hereford  cattle,  race  and  cart- 
horses, the  several  breeds  of  pigeons,  etc.,  could  never 
have  been  effected  by  the  mere  chance  accumulation 
of  similar  variations  during  many  successive  genera- 
tions. In  practice,  a  fancier  is,  for  instance,  struck 
by  a  pigeon  having  a  slightly  shorter  beak;  another 
fancier  is  struck  by  a  pigeon  having  a  rather  longer 
beak;  and  on  the  acknowledged  principle  that 
"fanciers  do  not  and  will  not  admire  a  medium 
standard,  but  like  extremes,"  they  both  go  on  (as 
has  actually  occurred  with  the  sub-breeds  of  the 
tumbler-pigeon)  choosing  and  breeding  from  birds 


1506  THE   STORY   OF   THE   UNIVERSE 

with  longer  and  longer  beaks,  or  with  shorter  and 
shorter  beaks.  Again,  we  may  suppose  that  at  an 
early  period  of  history,  the  men  of  one  nation  or 
district  required  swifter  horses,  while  those  of  an- 
other required  stronger  and  bulkier  horses.  The 
early  differences  would  be  very  slight,  but,  in  the 
course  of  time,  from  the  continued  selection  of 
swifter  horses  in  the  one  case,  and  of  stronger  ones 
in  the  other,  the  differences  would  become  greater, 
and  would  be  noted  as  forming  two  sub-breeds. 
Ultimately,  after  the  lapse  of  centuries,  these  sub- 
breeds  would  become  converted  into  two  well-es- 
tablished and  distinct  breeds.  As  the  differences 
became  greater,  the  inferior  animals  with  interme- 
diate characters,  being  neither  very  swift  nor  very 
strong,  would  not  have  been  used  for  breeding,  and 
will  thus  have  tended  to  disappear.  Here,  then,  we 
see  in  man's  productions  the  action  of  what  may  be 
called  the  principle  of  divergence,  causing  differ- 
ences, at  first  barely  appreciable,  steadily  to  increase, 
and  the  breeds  to  diverge  in  character,  both  from 
each  other  and  from  their  common  parent. 

But  how,  it  may  be  asked,  can  any  analogous  prin- 
ciple apply  in  nature?  I  believe  it  can  and  does 
apply  most  efficiently  (though  it  was  a  long  time  be- 
fore I  saw  how),  from  the  simple  circumstance  that 
the  more  diversified  the  descendants  from  any  one 
species  become  in  structure,  constitution,  and  habits, 
by  so  much  will  they  be  better  enabled  to  seize  on 
many  and  widely  diversified  places  in  the  polity  of 
nature,  and  so  be  enabled  to  increase  in  numbers. 

We  can  clearly  discern  this  in  the  case  of  animals 


NATURAL  SELECTION  1507 

with  simple  habits.  Take  the  case  of  a  carnivorous 
quadruped,  of  which  the  number  that  can  be  sup- 
ported in  any  country  has  long  ago  arrived  at  its  full 
average.  If  its  natural  power  of  increase  be  allowed 
to  act,  it  can  succeed  in  increasing  (the  country  not 
undergoing  any  change  in  conditions)  only  by  its 
varying  descendants  seizing  on  places  at  present  oc- 
cupied by  other  animals :  some  of  them,  for  instance, 
being  enabled  to  feed  on  new  kinds  of  prey,  either 
dead  or  alive;  some  inhabiting  new  stations,  climbing 
trees,  frequenting  water,  and  some  perhaps  becoming 
less  carnivorous.  The  more  diversified  in  habits  and 
structure  the  descendants  of  our  carnivorous  animals 
become,  the  more  places  they  will  be  enabled  to 
occupy.  What  applies  to  one  animal  will  apply 
throughout  all  time  to  all  animals — that  is,  if  they 
vary — for  otherwise  natural  selection  can  effect 
nothing. 

By  considering  the  nature  of  the  plants  or  animals 
which  have  in  any  country  struggled  successfully 
with  the  indigenes,  and  have  there  become  natural- 
ized, we  may  gain  some  crude  idea  in  what  manner 
some  of  the  natives  would  have  to  be  modified  in 
order  to  gain  an  advantage  over  their  compatriots; 
and  we  may  at  least  infer  that  diversification  of  struc- 
ture, amounting  to  new  generic  differences,  would  be 
profitable  to  them. 

The  advantage  of  diversification  of  structure  in 
the  inhabitants  of  the  same  region  is,  in  fact,  the  same 
as  that  of  the  physiological  division  of  labor  in  the 
organs  of  the  same  individual  body — a  subject  so 
well  elucidated  by  Milne  Edwards.  No  physiologist 


1508  THE  STORY   OF  THE   UNIVERSE 

doubts  that  a  stomach  adapted  to  digest  vegetable 
matter  alone,  or  flesh  alone,  draws  most  nutriment 
from  these  substances.  So  in  the  general  economy  of 
any  land,  the  more  widely  and  perfectly  the  animals 
and  plants  are  diversified  for  different  habits  of  life, 
so  will  a  greater  number  of  individuals  be  capable 
of  there  supporting  themselves.  A  set  of  animals, 
with  their  organization  but  little  diversified,  could 
hardly  compete  with  a  set  more  perfectly  diversi- 
fied in  structure.  It  may  be  doubted,  for  instance, 
whether  the  Australian  marsupials,  which  are  di- 
vided into  groups  differing  but  little  from  each  other, 
and  feebly  representing,  as  Mr.  Waterhouse  and 
others  have  remarked,  our  carnivorous,  ruminant, 
and  rodent  mammals,  could  successfully  compete 
with  these  well-developed  orders.  In  the  Australian 
mammals,  we  see  the  process  of  diversification  in  an 
early  and  incomplete  stage  of  development. 

If  under  changing  conditions  of  life  organic  beings 
present  individual  differences  in  almost  every  part 
of  their  structure,  and  this  can  not  be  disputed;  if 
there  be,  owing  to  their  geometrical  rate  of  increase, 
a  severe  struggle  for  life  at  some  age,  season,  or  year, 
and  this  certainly  can  not  be  disputed ;  then,  consid- 
ering the  infinite  complexity  of  the  relations  of  all 
organic  beings  to  each  other  and  to  their  conditions  of 
life,  causing  an  infinite  diversity  in  structure,  consti- 
tution, and  habits,  to  be  advantageous  to  them,  it 
would  be  a  most  extraordinary  fact  if  no  variations 
had  ever  occurred  useful  to  each  being's  own  welfare, 
in  the  same  manner  as  so  many  variations  have  oc- 
curred useful  to  man.  But  if  variations  useful  to 


NATURAL  SELECTION  1509 

any  organic  being  ever  do  occur,  assuredly  individ- 
uals thus  characterized  will  have  the  best  chance  of 
being  preserved  in  the  struggle  for  life;  and  from 
the  strong  principle  of  inheritance,  these  will  tend 
to  produce  offspring  similarly  characterized.  This 
principle  of  preservation,  or  the  survival  of  the  fit- 
test, I  have  called  Natural  Selection.  It  leads  to  the 
improvement  of  each  creature  in  relation  to  its  or- 
ganic and  inorganic  conditions  of  life;  and  conse- 
quently, in  most  cases,  to  what  must  be  regarded  as 
an  advance  in  organization.  Nevertheless,  low  and 
simple  forms  will  long  endure  if  well  fitted  for  their 
simple  conditions  of  life. 

Natural  selection,  on  the  principle  of  qualities 
being  inherited  at  corresponding  ages,  can  modify 
the  egg,  seed,  or  young,  as  easily  as  the  adult.  Among 
many  animals,  sexual  selection  will  have  given  its 
aid  to  ordinary  selection,  by  assuring  to  the  most  vig- 
orous and  best  adapted  males  the  greatest  number  of 
offspring.  Sexual  selection  will  also  give  characters 
useful  to  the  males  alone,  in  their  struggles  or  rivalry 
with  other  males;  and  these  characters  will  be  trans- 
mitted to  one  sex  or  to  both  sexes,  according  to  the 
form  of  inheritance  which  prevails. 

Whether  natural  selection  has  really  thus  acted,  in 
adapting  the  various  forms  of  life  to  their  several 
conditions  and  stations,  must  be  judged  by  the  gen- 
eral tenor  and  balance  of  evidence.  But  we  have 
already  seen  how  it  entails  extinction;  and  how 
largely  extinction  has  acted  in  the  world's  history, 
geology  plainly  declares.  Natural  selection,  also, 
leads  to  divergence  of  character;  for  the  more  or- 


1510  THE  STORY   OF  THE   UNIVERSE 

ganic  beings  diverge  in  structure,  habits,  and  con- 
stitution, by  so  much  the  more  can  a  large  number 
be  supported  on  the  area — of  which  we  see  proof 
by  looking  to  the  inhabitants  of  any  small  spot, 
and  to  the  productions  naturalized  in  foreign  lands. 
Therefore,  during  the  modification  of  the  descend- 
ants of  any  one  species,  and  during  the  incessant 
struggle  of  all  species  to  increase  in  numbers,  the 
more  diversified  the  descendants  become,  the  better 
will  be  their  chance  of  success  in  the  battle  for  life. 
Thus  the  small  differences  distinguishing  varieties 
of  the  same  species  steadily  tend  to  increase,  till  they 
equal  the  greater  differences  between  species  of  the 
same  genus,  or  even  of  distinct  genera. 

We  have  seen  that  it  is  the  common,  the  widely 
diffused  and  widely  ranging  species,  belonging  to  the 
larger  genera  within  each  class,  which  vary  most;  and 
these  tend  to  transmit  to  their  modified  offspring  that 
superiority  which  now  makes  them  dominant  in  their 
own  countries.  Natural  selection,  as  has  just  been  re- 
marked, leads  to  divergence  of  character  and  to  much 
extinction  of  the  less  improved  and  intermediate 
forms  of  life.  On  these  principles,  the  nature  of  the 
affinities,  and  the  generally  well-defined  distinctions 
between  the  innumerable  organic  beings  in  each  class 
throughout  the  world,  may  be  explained.  It  is  a 
truly  wonderful  fact — the  wonder  of  which  we  are 
apt  to  overlook  from  familiarity — that  all  animals 
and  all  plants  throughout  all  time  and  space  should 
be  related  to  each  other  in  groups,  subordinate  to 
groups,  in  the  manner  which  we  everywhere  behold ; 
namely,  varieties  of  the  same  species  most  closely 


NATURAL   SELECTION  1511 

related,  species  of  the  same  genus  less  closely  and 
unequally  related,  forming  sections  and  sub-genera, 
species  of  distinct  genera  much  less  closely  related, 
and  genera  related  in  different  degrees,  forming  sub- 
families, families,  orders,  sub-classes  and  classes.  The 
several  subordinate  groups  in  any  class  can  not  be 
ranked  in  a  single  file,  but  seem  clustered  round 
points,  and  these  round  other  points,  and  so  on  in 
almost  endless  cycles.  If  species  had  been  indepen- 
dently created,  no  explanation  would  have  been  pos- 
sible of  this  kind  of  classification;  but  it  is  explained 
through  inheritance  and  the  complex  action  of  natu- 
ral selection,  entailing  extinction  and  divergence  of 
character. 

The  affinities  of  all  the  beings  of  the  same  class 
have  sometimes  been  represented  by  a  great  tree.  I 
believe  this  simile  largely  speaks  the  truth.  The 
green  and  budding  twigs  may  represent  existing  spe- 
cies; and  those  produced  during  former  years  may 
represent  the  long  succession  of  extinct  species.  At 
each  period  of  growth  all  the  growing  twigs  have 
tried  to  branch  out  on  all  sides,  and  to  overtop  and 
kill  the  surrounding  twigs  and  branches,  in  the  same 
manner  as  species  and  groups  of  species  have  at  all 
times  overmastered  other  species  in  the  great  battle 
for  life.  The  limbs  divided  into  great  branches,  and 
these  into  lesser  and  lesser  branches,  were  themselves 
once,  when  the  tree  was  young,  budding  twigs ;  and 
this  connection  of  the  former  and  present  buds  by 
ramifying  branches  may  well  represent  the  classi- 
fication of  all  extinct  and  living  species  in  groups  sub- 
ordinate to  groups.  Of  the  many  twigs  which  flour- 


1512  THE   STORY  OF  THE   UNIVERSE 

ished  when  the  tree  was  a  mere  bush,  only  two  or 
three,  now  grown  into  great  branches,  yet  survive  and 
bear  the  other  branches;  so  with  the  species  which 
lived  during  long-past  geological  periods,  very  few 
have  left  living  and  modified  descendants.  From 
the  first  growth  of  the  tree,  many  a  limb  and  branch 
has  decayed  and  dropped  off;  and  these  fallen 
branches  of  various  sizes  may  represent  those  whole 
orders,  families,  and  genera  which  have  now  no  liv- 
ing representatives,  and  which  are  known  to  us  only 
in  a  fossil  state.  As  we  here  and  there  see  a  thin 
straggling  branch  springing  from  a  fork  low  down  in 
a  tree,  and  which  by  some  chance  has  been  favored 
and  is  still  alive  on  its  summit,  so  we  occasionally 
see  an  animal  like  the  Ornithorhynchus  or  Lepido- 
siren,  which  in  some  small  degree  connects  by  its 
affinities  two  large  branches  of  life,  and  which  has 
apparently  been  saved  from  fatal  competition  by 
having  inhabited  a  protected  station.  As  buds  give 
rise  by  growth  to  fresh  buds,  and  these,  if  vigorous, 
branch  out  and  overtop  on  all  sides  many  a  feebler 
branch,  so  by  generation  I  believe  it  has  been  with 
the  great  Tree  of  Life,  which  fills  with  its  dead  and 
broken  branches  the  crust  of  the  earth,  and  covers 
the  surface  with  its  ever-branching  and  beautiful 
ramifications. 


MAMMALIA  1513 


MAMMALIA. — BARON  CUVIER 

THE  mammalia  are  placed  at  the  head  of  the 
animal  kingdom  not  only  because  it  is  the 
class  to  which  man  himself  belongs,  but  also  be- 
cause it  is  that  which  enjoys  the  most  numerous 
faculties,  the  most  delicate  sensations,  the  most  va- 
ried powers  of  motion,  and  in  which  all  the  different 
qualities  seem  combined  in  order  to  produce  a  most 
perfect  degree  of  intelligence,  the  one  most  fertile 
in  resources,  most  susceptible  of  perfection,  and  least 
the  slave  of  instinct. 

As  their  quantity  of  respiration  is  moderate,  they 
are  designed  in  general  for  walking  on  the  earth, 
but  with  vigorous  and  continued  steps.  The  forms 
of  the  articulations  of  their  skeleton  are,  conse- 
quently, strictly  defined,  which  determines  all  their 
motions  with  the  most  rigorous  precision. 

Some  of  them,  however,  by  means  of  limbs  con- 
siderably elongated  and  extended  membranes,  raise 
themselves  in  the  air;  others  have  them  so  short- 
ened that  they  can  move  with  facility  in  water  only, 
though  this  does  not  deprive  them  of  the  general 
character  of  the  class. 

The  upper  jaw  in  all  of  these  animals  is  fixed  to 
the  cranium;  the  lower  jaw  is  formed  of  two  pieces 
only,  articulated  by  a  projecting  condyle  to  a  fixed 
temporal  bone;  the  neck  consists  of  seven  vertebrae; 
one  single  species  excepted,  which  has  nine;  the  an- 
terior ribs  are  attached  before,  by  cartilage  to  a 
sternum  consisting  of  several  vertical  pieces;  their 


1514  THE   STORY   OF  THE   UNIVERSE 

anterior  extremity  commences  in  a  shoulder-blade, 
that  is  not  articulated,  but  simply  suspended  in  the 
flesh,  often  resting  on  the  sternum  by  means  of  an 
intermediate  bone,  called  a  clavicle.  This  ex- 
tremity is  continued  by  an  arm,  a  forearm,  and  a 
hand,  the  latter  being  composed  of  two  ranges  of 
small  bones  called  the  carpus,  of  another  range  called 
the  metacarpus,  and  of  the  fingers,  each  of  which 
consists  of  two  or  three  bones,  termed  phalanges. 

With  the  exception  of  the  cetacea,  the  first  part 
of  the  posterior  extremity  in  all  animals  of  this  class 
is  fixed  to  the  spine,  forming  a  girdle  or  pelvis, 
which,  in  youth,  consists  of  three  pairs  of  bones,  the 
ilium  which  is  attached  to  the  spine,  the  pubis  which 
forms  the  anterior  part  of  the  girdle,  and  the 
ischium,  the  posterior.  At  the  point  of  union  of 
these  three  bones  is  situated  the  cavity  with  which  the 
thigh  is  articulated,  to  which,  in  its  turn,  is  attached 
the  leg,  formed  of  two  bones,  the  tibia  and  fibula; 
this  extremity  is  terminated  by  parts  similar  to  those 
of  the  hand,  i.  e.,  by  a  tarsus,  metatarsus,  and  toes. 

The  head  of  the  mammalia  is  always,  articulated 
by  two  condyles,  with  the  atlas,  the  first  vertebra  of 
the  neck. 

The  brain  is  always  composed  of  two  hemispheres, 
united  by  a  medullary  layer,  called  the  corpus 
callosum,  containing  the  ventricles,  and  enveloping 
four  pairs  of  tubercles,  named  the  corpora  striata, 
or  striated  bodies,  the  thalami  nervorum  opticorum, 
or  beds  of  the  optic  nerves,  and  the  nates  and  testes. 
Between  the  optic  beds  is  a  third  ventricle,  which 
communicates  with  a  fourth  under  the  cerebellum, 


MAMMALIA  1515 

the  crura  of  which  always  form  a  transverse  promi- 
nence under  the  medulla  oblongata,  called  the  pons 
Varolii,  or  bridge  of  Varolius. 

The  eye,  invariably  lodged  in  its  orbit,  is  pro- 
tected by  two  lids  and  a  vestige  of  a  third,  and  has 
its  crystalline  fixed  by  the  ciliary  processes — its 
sclerotic  is  simply  cellular. 

The  ear  always  contains  a  cavity  called  the 
tympanum,  or  drum,  which  communicates  with  the 
mouth  by  the  Eustachian  tube;  the  cavity  itself  is 
closed  externally  by  a  membrane  called  the  mem- 
brana  tympani,  and  contains  a  chain  of  four  little 
bones,  named  the  incus  or  anvil,  malleus  or  hammer, 
the  os  orbiculare  or  circular  bone,  and  the  stapes 
or  stirrup;  a  vestibule,  on  the  entrance  of  which  rests 
the  stapes,  and  which  communicates  with  three  semi- 
circular canals;  and  finally  a  cochlea,  which  termi- 
nates by  one  canal  in  the  vestibule  and  by  the  other 
in  the  tympanum. 

Their  cranium  is  subdivided  into  three  portions; 
the  anterior  is  formed  by  the  two  frontal  and  ethmoi- 
dal  bones,  the  middle  by  the  two  ossa  parietalia  and 
the  os  ethmoides,  and  the  posterior  by  the  os  occi- 
pitis.  Between  the  ossa  parietalia,  the  sphenoidalis, 
and  the  os  occipitis  are  interposed  the  two  temporal 
bones,  part  of  which  belong  properly  to  the  face. 

Their  face  consists  of  two  maxillary  bones,  be- 
tween which  pass  the  nostrils;  the  two  intermaxil- 
laries  are  situated  before  and  the  two  ossa  palati 
behind  them;  between  these  descends  the  vomer,  a 
bony  process  of  the  os  ethmoides;  at  the  entrance  of 
the  nasal  canal  are  placed  the  ossa  nasi;  to  its  ex- 


1516  THE   STORY  OF  THE   UNIVERSE 

ternal  parietes  adhere  the  inferior  turbinated  bones, 
the  superior  ones  which  occupy  its  upper  and  pos- 
terior portion  belonging  to  the  os  ethmoides.  The 
jugal  or  cheek  bone  unites  the  maxillary  to  the  tem- 
poral bone  on  each  side,  and  frequently  to  the  os 
frontis;  finally  the  os  unguis  and  pars  plana  of  the 
ethmoid  bone  occupy  the  internal  angle  of  the  or- 
bit, and  sometimes  a  part  of  the  cheek.  In  the  em- 
bryo state  these  bones  also  are  much  more  subdivided. 

Their  tongue  is  always  fleshy,  connected  with  a 
bone  called  the  hyoides,  which  is  composed  of  sev- 
eral pieces,  and  suspended  from  the  cranium  by 
ligaments. 

Their  lungs,  two  in  number,  divided  into  lobes 
and  composed  of  an  infinite  number  of  cells,  are 
always  inclosed,  without  any  adhesion,  in  a  cavity 
formed  by  the  ribs  and  diaphragm  and  lined  by  the 
pleura ;  the  organ  of  voice  is  always  at  the  upper  ex- 
tremity of  the  trachea;  a  fleshy  curtain,  called  the 
velum  palati,  establishes  a  direct  communication 
between  their  larynx  and  nasal  canal. 

Their  residence  on  the  surface  of  the  earth  render- 
ing them  less  exposed  to  the  alternations  of  cold  and 
heat,  their  tegument,  the  hair,  is  but  moderately 
thick,  and  in  such  as  inhabit  warm  climates  even 
that  is  rare. 

The  Cetacea,  which  live  exclusively  in  water,  are 
the  only  ones  that  are  altogether  deprived  of  it. 

The  young  are  nourished  for  some  time  after 
birth  by  a  fluid  (milk)  peculiar  to  animals  of  this 
class,  which  is  produced  by  the  mammae  at  the  time 
of  parturition,  and  continues  to  be  so  long  as  is  neces- 


MAMMALIA  1517 

sary.  It  is  from  the  mammae  that  this  class  derives 
its  name,  and  being  a  character  peculiar  to  it,  they 
distinguish  it  better  than  any  other  that  is  external. 

The  variable  characters  which  form  essential  dif- 
ferences among  the  mammalia  are  taken  from  the 
organs  of  touch,  on  which  depends  their  degree  of 
ability  or  address,  and  from  the  organs  of  mandu- 
cation,  which  determine  the  nature  of  their  ailment, 
and  are  all  closely  connected,  not  only  with  every- 
thing relative  to  the  function  of  digestion,  but  also 
with  a  multitude  of  other  differences  relating  to 
their  intelligence. 

The  degree  of  perfection  of  the  organs  of  touch 
is  estimated  by  the  number  and  the  pliability  of  the 
fingers,  and  from  the  greater  or  less  extent  to  which 
their  extremities  are  enveloped  by  the  nail  or  the 
hoof. 

A  hoof  which  completely  envelops  the  end  of  the 
toe  blunts  its  sensibility,  and  renders  the  foot  in- 
capable of  seizing. 

The  opposite  extreme  is  when  a  nail,  formed  of 
one  single  lamina,  covers  only  one  of  the  faces  of 
the  extremity  of  the  finger,  leaving  the  other  pos- 
sessed of  all  its  delicacy. 

The  nature  of  the  food  is  known  by  the  grinders, 
to  the  form  of  which  the  articulation  of  the  jaws 
universally  corresponds. 

To  cut  flesh,  grinders  are  required  as  trenchant 
as  a  saw  and  jaws  fitted  like  scissors,  having  no  other 
motion  than  a  vertical  one. 

For  bruising  roots  or  grains  flat-crowned  grinders 
are  necessary,  and  jaws  that  have  a  lateral  motion; 


1518  THE   STORY   OF  THE   UNIVERSE 

in  order  that  inequalities  may  always  exist  on  the 
crown  of  these  teeth,  it  is  also  requisite  that  their 
substance  be  composed  of  parts  of  unequal  hardness, 
so  that  one  may  wear  away  faster  than  others. 

Hoofed  animals  are  necessarily  herbivorous,  and 
have  flat-crowned  grinders,  inasmuch  as  their  feet 
preclude  the  possibility  of  their  seizing  a  living  prey. 

Animalswith  unguiculated  fingers  were  susceptible 
of  more  variety;  their  food  is  of  all  kinds,  and  in- 
dependently of  the  form  of  their  grinders,  they  differ 
greatly  from  each  other  in  the  pliability  and  delicacy 
of  their  fingers.  There  is  one  character  with  re- 
spect to  this  which  has  immense  influence  on  their 
dexterity  and  greatly  multiplies  its  powers;  it  is  the 
faculty  of  opposing  the  thumb  to  the  finger  for  the 
purpose  of  seizing  minute  objects,  constituting  what 
is  properly  called  a  hand,  a  faculty  which  is  carried 
to  its  highest  perfection  in  man,  in  whom  the  whole 
anterior  extremity  is  free  and  capable  of  prehension. 

These  various  combinations  which  strictly  de- 
termine the  nature  of  the  different  mammalia  have 
given  rise  to  the  following  orders: 

Among  the  unguiculated  animals,  the  first  is  Man, 
who,  in  addition  to  privileges  of  other  descriptions, 
possesses  hands  at  the  anterior  extremities  only,  the 
posterior  being  designed  to  support  him  in  an  erect 
position. 

In  the  order  next  to  man,  that  of  the  Quadrumana, 
we  find  hands  at  the  four  extremities. 

In  another  order,  that  of  the  Carnivora,  the  thumb 
is  not  free,  and  can  not  be  opposed  to  the  anterior 
extremities. 


MAMMALIA  1519 

Each  of  these  orders  has  the  three  sorts  of  teeth, 
grinders,  canini,  and  incisors,  or  cutting  teeth. 

In  the  fourth  order,  that  of  the  Rodentia,  the  toes 
differ  but  little  from  those  of  the  Carnivora,  but  there 
are  no  canine  teeth,  and  the  incisors  are  placed  in 
front  of  the  mouth,  and  adapted  to  a  very  peculiar 
sort  of  manducation. 

Then  come  those  animals  whose  toes  are  much 
cramped  and  deeply  sunk  in  large  nails,  which  are 
generally  curved ;  they  have  no  incisors,  and  in  some 
the  canines  disappear,  while  others  have  none  of  any 
description.  We  comprise  them  all  under  the  title 
of  Edentata. 

This  distribution  of  the  unguiculated  animals 
would  be  perfect  and  form  a  very  regular  series 
were  it  not  that  New  Holland  has  lately  furnished 
us  with  a  little  collateral  one,  consisting  of  animals 
with  pouches,  the  different  genera  of  which  are 
connected  by  a  general  similarity  of  organization; 
some  of  them,  however,  in  the  teeth  and  nature  of 
their  diet  corresponding  to  the  Carnivora  and  others 
to  the  Rodentia,  and  a  third  to  the  Edentata. 

The  hoofed  animals  are  less  numerous,  and  have 
likewise  fewer  irregularities. 

The  Ruminantia,  by  their  cloven  foot,  the  absence 
of  true  incisors  in  their  upper  jaw,  and  their  four 
stomachs,  form  an  order  that  is  very  distinct. 

The  remaining  hoofed  animals  may  all  be  united 
in  a  single  order,  which  I  shall  call  Pachydermata 
or  Jumenta,  the  elephant  excepted,  which  might  con- 
stitute a  separate  one,  and  which  is  remotely  con- 
nected with  that  of  the  Rodentia. 

K  VOL.  IV. 


1520  THE  STORY  OF  THE   UNIVERSE 

In  the  last  place  we  find  those  of  the  mammalia 
which  have  no  posterior  extremities,  whose  pis- 
catory form  and  aquatic  mode  of  life  would  induce 
us  to  form  them  into  a  particular  class,  were  it  not 
that  in  everything  else  their  economy  is  similar  to 
that  in  which  we  have  them.  These  are  the  hot- 
blooded  fishes  of  the  ancients,  or  the  Cetacea,  which, 
uniting  to  the  vigor  of  the  other  mammalia  the  ad- 
vantage of  being  sustained  by  the  watery  element, 
present  to  our  wondering  sight  the  most  gigantic 
of  animals. 

ZOOLOGICAL   ZONES 

—SIR  RICHARD  OWEN 

ORGANIC  life  in  its  animal  form  is  much  more 
developed,  and  more  variously,  in  the  sea  than 
in  its  vegetable  form. 

Observations  of  marine  animals  have  led  to  at- 
tempts at  generalizing  the  results;  and  the  modes 
of  enunciating  these  generalizations  or  laws  of 
geographical  distribution  are  very  analogous  to  those 
which  have  been  applied  to  the  vegetable  kingdom, 
which  is  as  diversely  developed  on  land  as  is  the  ani- 
mal kingdom  in  the  sea.  Certain  horizontal  areas, 
or  provinces,  have  been  characterized  by  the  entire 
assemblage  of  animals  and  plants  constituting  their 
population,  of  which  a  considerable  proportion  is 
peculiar  to  each  province,  and  the  majority  of  the 
species  have  their  areas  of  maximum  development 
within  it. 

Of  such  provinces  of  marine  life,  that  much-la- 


ZOOLOGICAL   ZONES  1521 

mented,  far-seeing,  and  genial  philosopher,  Edward 
Forbes,  has  provisionally  defined  twenty-five. 

The  same  physical  conditions  are  associated  with 
a  certain  similarity  between  the  animals  of  different 
provinces.  Where  those  provinces  are  proximate, 
such  likeness  is  due  to  the  identity  or  close  affinity 
of  the  species;  but  where  the  provinces  are  remote 
the  resemblance  is  one  of  analogy,  and  species  of 
different  genera  or  families  represent  each  other. 

A  second  mode  of  expressing  the  ascertained  facts 
of  the  geographical  distribution  of  marine  animals 
is  by  tracts  called  Homoiozoic  Belts,  bounded  by 
climatal  lines;  which  are  not,  however,  parallel  with 
lines  of  latitude,  but  undulate  in  subordination  to 
climatal  influences  of  warm  or  cold  oceanic  currents, 
relations  of  land  to  water,  etc.  Of  these  belts  Pro- 
fessor E.  Forbes  has  defined  nine:  one  equatorial, 
with  four  to  the  north  and  four  to  the  south,  which 
are  mutually  representative. 

But  the  most  interesting  form  of  expression  of  the 
distribution  of  marine  life  is  that  which  parallels 
the  perpendicular  distribution  of  plants.  Edward 
Forbes,  availing  himself  of  the  valuable  results  of 
a  systematic  use  of  the  dredge,  first  showed  that  ma- 
rine animals  and  plants  varied  according  to  the 
depth  at  which  they  lived  in  a  manner  very  anal- 
ogous to  the  changes  in  the  forms  and  species  of 
vegetation  observed  in  the  ascent  of  a  tropical  moun- 
tain. He  has  expressed  these  facts  by  defining  five 
bathymetrical  zones,  or  belts  of  depth,  which  he 
calls:  i.  Littoral;  2.  Circumlittoral;  3.  Median; 
4.  Infra-median;  5.  Abyssal. 


1522  THE  STORY  OF  THE   UNIVERSE 

The  life-forms  of  these  zones  vary,  of  course,  ac- 
cording to  the  nature  of  the  sea  bottom;  and  are 
modified  by  those  primitive  or  creative  laws  that 
have  caused  representative  species  in  distant  localities 
under  like  physical  conditions — species  related  by 
analogy. 

Very  much  remains  to  be  observed  and  studied  by 
naturalists  in  different  parts  of  the  globe,  under  the 
guidance  of  the  generalizations  thus  sketched  out, 
to  the  completion  of  a  perfect  theory.  But  in  the 
progress  to  this,  the  results  can  not  fail  to  be  prac- 
tically most  valuable.  A  shell  or  a  sea-weed,  whose 
relations  to  depth  are  thus  understood,  may  afford 
important  information  or  warning  to  the  navigator. 
To  the  geologist  the  distribution  of  marine  life  ac- 
cording to  the  zones  of  depth  has  given  the  clew  to 
the  determination  of  the  depth  of  the  seas  in  which 
certain  formations  have  been  deposited. 

By  the  light  of  these  laws  of  geographical  distri- 
bution we  view  with  quite  a  new  interest  the  shells, 
corals,  and  sea-weeds  of  our  own  shores.  We  trace 
the  regions  whence  they  have  been  invaded  by  races 
not  aboriginally  belonging  to  our  seas;  we  obtain 
indications  of  irruptions  of  sea-currents  of  dates  an- 
terior to  the  present  arrangements  of  land  and  water. 
Thus,  part  of  our  marine  fauna  has  been  traced  back 
to  the  old  Pliocene  period,  part  to  the  somewhat 
newer  period  of  the  red-crag,  part  to  the  still  more 
recent  glacial  period — all  these  being  anterior  to 
the  constitution  of  the  Celtic  Province,  as  it  is  now 
displayed. 

The  class  of  animals  to  which  the  restrictive  laws 


ZOOLOGICAL   ZONES  1523 

of  geographical  distribution  might  seem  least  ap- 
plicable is  that  of  birds :  their  peculiar  power  of  loco- 
motion, associated  in  numerous  species  with  migra- 
tory habits,  might  seem  to  render  them  independent 
of  every  influence,  save  those  of  climate  and  of  food, 
which  directly  affects  the  conditions  of  their  ex- 
istence. Yet  the  long-winged  albatross  is  never  met 
with  north  of  the  equator;  nor  does  the  condor  soar 
above  other  mountains  than  the  Andes.  The  geo- 
graphical range  of  its  European  representative,  the 
strong-winged  lammergeyer,  is  similarly  restricted. 
The  Asiatic  Phasianidae  and  Pavonidae  are  repre- 
sented .by  turkeys  (Meleagris)  in  America;  by  the 
guinea-fowl  (Numida  Agelastus,  Phasidus)  in 
Africa,  and  by  the  Megapodiae  or  mound  birds  in 
Australia.  Several  genera  of  finches  are  peculiar 
to  the  Galapagos  Islands;  the  richly  and  fantas- 
tically ornate  birds  of  paradise  are  restricted  to  New 
Guinea  and  some  neighboring  isles.  Mr.  Sclater, 
who  has  contributed  the  latest  summary  of  facts  on 
the  distribution  of  birds,  reckons  seventeen  families 
as  peculiar  to  America  and  sixteen  families  as  pe- 
culiar to  Europe,  Asia,  and  Africa.  Some  species 
have  a  singularly  restricted  locality,  as  the  red- 
grouse  (Tetrao  scoticus)  to  the  British  Isles;  the  owl- 
parrot  (Nestor  productus)  to  Philip  Island,  a  small 
spot  near  New  Zealand. 

When  birds  have  wings  too  short  for  flight,  we 
marvel  less  at  their  restricted  range;  and  particular 
genera  of  brevipennate  birds  have  their  peculiar 
continents  and  islands.  The  long  and  strong-limbed 
ostrich  courses  over  the  whole  continent  of  Africa 


152i  THE  STORY  OF  THE   UNIVERSE 

and  conterminous  Arabia.  The  genus  of  three-toed 
ostriches  (rhea)  is  similarly  restricted  to  South 
America.  The  emeu  (Dromaius)  has  Australia 
assigned  to  it.  The  continent  of  the  cassowary 
(Casaurius)  has  been  broken  up  into  Sumatra,  Java, 
Banda,  and  other  islands,  extending  from  the  south- 
eastern peninsula  of  Asia  to  New  Guinea.  A  second 
species  of  cassowary  has  recently  been  imported  to 
our  zoological  gardens  from  the  more  southern  isl- 
and of  New  Britain.  The  singular  nocturnal  wing- 
less kivi  ( apteryx ).  is  peculiar  to  the  island  of  New 
Zealand. 

Other  species  and  genera  which  seem  to  be  like  the 
apteryx,  as  it  were  mocked  with  feathers  and  rudi- 
ments of  wings,  have  wholly  ceased  to  exist  within 
the  memory  of  man  in  the  islands  to  which  they  were 
respectively  restricted.  The  dodo  (Didus  ineptus) 
of  the  Mauritius,  and  the  solitaire  (Pezophops 
solitaria)  are  instances. 

In  New  Zealand  also  there  existed,  within  the 
memory  of  the  Maori  ancestry,  huge  birds  having 
their  nearest  affinities  to  the  still  existing  apteryx  of 
that  island,  but  generically  distinct  from  that  and 
all  other  known  birds.  I  have  proposed  the  name 
of  Dinornis  for  this  now  extinct  genus,  of  which  more 
than  a  dozen  well-defined  species  have  come  to  my 
knowledge,  all  peculiar  to  New  Zealand,  and  the 
last  discovered  the  strangest,  by  reason  of  the  ele- 
phantine proportions  of  its  feet.  A  tridactyle  wing- 
less bird  of  another  genus,  ./Epyornis,  second  only  to 
the  gigantic  Dinornis  in  size,  appears  to  have  only 
recently  become  extinct — if  it  be  extinct — in  the 


ZOOLOGICAL   ZONES  1525 

island  of  Madagascar.  The  egg  of  this  bird,  which 
may  have  suggested  to  the  Arabian  voyagers,  attain- 
ing Madagascar  from  the  Red  Sea,  the  idea  of  the 
Roc  of  their  romances,  would  hold  the  contents  of 
six  eggs  of  the  ostrich,  sixteen  eggs  of  the  cassowary, 
and  one  hundred  and  forty-eight  eggs  of  the  common 
fowl. 

Had  all  the  terrestrial  animals  that  now  exist 
diverged  from  one  common  centre  within  the  limited 
period  of  a  few  thousand  years,  it  might  have  been 
expected  that  the  remoteness  of  their  actual  local- 
ities from  such  ideal  centre  would  bear  a  certain 
ratio  with  their  respective  powers  of  locomotion. 
With  regard  to  the  class  of  birds,  one  might  have 
expected  to  find  that  those  which  were  deprived  of 
the  power  of  flight,  and  were  adapted  to  subsist  on 
the  vegetation  of  a  warm  or  temperate  latitude, 
would  still  be  met  with  more  or  less  associated  to- 
gether, and  least  distant  from  the  original  centre  of 
dispersion  situated  in  such  a  latitude.  But  what  is 
the  fact?  The  species  of  no  one  order  of  birds  is 
more  widely  dispersed  over  the  earth  than  the  wing- 
less or  struthidus  kind.  Assuming  that  the  original 
centre  has  been  somewhere  in  the  southwestern 
mountain  range  of  Asia,  there  is  but  one  of  the  spe- 
cies of  flightless  birds  whose  habitat  can  be  recon- 
ciled with  the  hypothesis.  By  the  neck  of  land  still 
uniting  Asia  with  Africa,  the  progeny  of  the  pri- 
mary pair  created  or  liberated  at  the  hypothetical 
centre  might  have  traveled  to  the  latter  continent, 
and  there  have  propagated  and  dispersed  themselves 
southward  to  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope.  It  is  remark- 


1526  THE   STORY   OF  THE   UNIVERSE 

able,  however,  that  the  ostrich  should  not  have  mi- 
grated eastward  over  the  vast  plains  or  steppes  which 
extend  along  the  warmer  temperate  zone  of  Asia,  or 
have  reached  the  southern  tropical  regions;  it  is  in 
fact  scarcely  known  in  the  Asiatic  continent,  being 
restricted  to  the  Arabian  deserts,  and  being  rare 
even  in  those  parts  which  are  most  contiguous  to 
what  I  have  called  its  proper  continent,  Africa.  If 
we  next  consider  the  locality  of  the  cassowary,  we 
find  great  difficulty  in  conceiving  how  such  a  bird 
could  have  migrated  to  the  islands  of  Java,  the 
Moluccas,  or  New  Guinea,  from  the  continent  of 
Asia.  The  cassowary  is  not  web-footed  like  the 
swimming  birds;  for  wings  it  has  only  a  few  short 
and  strong  quills.  How  could  it  have  overcome  the 
obstacles  which  some  hundreds  of  miles  of  ocean 
would  present  to  its  passage  from  the  continent  of 
Asia  to  those  islands?  If  the  difficulty  already  be 
felt  to  be  great  in  regard  to  the  insular  position  of 
the  cassowary,  it  is  still  greater  when  we  come  to 
apply  the  hypothesis  of  dispersion  from  a  single  cen- 
tre to  the  dodo  of  the  island  of  Mauritius,  or  the 
solitaire  of  the  island  of  Rodriguez.  How,  again, 
could  the  emeu  have  overcome  the  natural  obstacles 
to  the  migration  of  a  wingless  terrestrial  bird  from 
Asia  to  Australia?  and  why  should  not  the  great 
continent  of  Asia  have  offered  in  its  fertile  plains  a 
locality  suited  to  its  existence,  if  it  ever  at  any  pe- 
riod had  existed  on  that  continent?  A  bird  of  the 
nature  of  the  emeu  was  hardly  less  likely  to  have 
escaped  the  notice  of  scientific  travelers  than  the  os- 
trich itself;  but,  save  in  the  Arabian  deserts,  the  os- 


ZOOLOGICAL   ZONES  1527 

trich  has  not  been  found  in  any  part  of  Asia,  and 
no  other  species  of  wingless  birds  has  ever  been 
met  with  on  that  continent;  the  evidence  in  regard 
to  such  large  and  conspicuous  birds  is  conclusive  to 
that  fact.  Again,  in  order  that  the  rhea,  or  three- 
toed  ostrich,  should  reach  South  America  by  travel- 
ing along  that  element  on  which  alone  it  is  or- 
ganized and  adapted  to  make  progress,  it  must,  on 
the  hypothesis  of  dispersion  from  a  single  Asiatic 
centre,  have  traveled  northward  into  the  inhospi- 
table wilds  of  Siberia;  it  must  have  braved  and  over- 
come the  severer  regions  of  the  Arctic  zone;  it  must 
have  maintained  its  life  with  strength  adequate  to 
the  extraordinary  power  of  walking  and  running 
more  than  a  thousand  miles  of  land  or  frozen  ocean 
utterly  devoid  of  the  vegetables  that  now  constitute 
its  food  before  it  could  gain  the  northern  division 
of  America,  to  the  southern  division  of  which  it  is 
at  present  and  seems  ever  to  have  been  confined. 
The  migration  in  this  case  could  not  ihave  been 
gradual  and  accomplished  by  successive  generations. 
No  individual  of  the  large  vegetable-feeding  wing- 
less bird  that  now  subsists  in  South  America  could 
have  maintained  its  existence,  much  less  hatched  its 
eggs,  in  Arctic  latitudes,  where  the  food  of  the  spe- 
cies is  wholly  absent.  If  we  are  still  to  apply  the 
current  hypothesis  to  this  problem  in  natural  his- 
tory, we  must  suppose  that  the  pair  or  pairs  of  the 
rhea  that  started  from  the  highest  temperate  zone 
in  Asia  capable  of  maintaining  their  life  must  have 
also  been  the  same  individuals  which  began  to  prop- 
agate their  kind  when  they  reached  the  correspond- 


1528  THE   STORY   OF   THE   UNIVERSE 

ing  temperate  latitude  of  America.  But  no  indi- 
viduals of  the  rhea  have  remained  in  the  prairies  or 
in  any  part  of  North  America — they  are  limited  to 
the  middle  and  southern  division  of  the  South 
American  continent.  And  now,  finally,  consider  the 
abode  of  the  little  apteryx  at  the  Antipodes,  in  the 
comparatively  small  insulated  patch  of  dry  land 
formed  by  New  Zealand.  Let  us  call  to  mind  its 
very  restricted  means  of  migration — the  wings  re- 
duced to  the  minutest  rudiments,  the  feet  webless 
like  the  common  fowls,  its  power  of  swimming  as 
feeble!  How  could  it  ever  have  traversed  six  hun- 
dred miles  of  sea  that  separate  it  from  the  nearest 
land  intervening  between  New  Zealand  and  Asia? 
How  pass  from  the  southern  extremity  of  that  con- 
tinent to  the  nearest  island  of  the  Indian  Archipel- 
ago, and  so  from  member  to  member  of  that  group 
to  Australia — and  yet  leave  no  trace  behind  of  such 
migration  by  the  arrest  of  any  descendants  of  the 
migratory  generations  in  Asia  itself,  or  in  any  island 
between  Asia  and  New  Zealand? 

If  these  facts  are  inexplicable  on  the  hypothesis 
of  the  dispersion  of  the  species  of  the  air-breathing 
animals  from  a  single  Asiatic  centre,  we  must  next 
endeavor  to  collect  analogous  facts  and  classify 
them,  and  so  try  to  explain  intelligibly,  that  is  agree- 
ably with  the  facts,  the  true  law  or  cause  of  the 
actual  geographical  distribution  of  animals. 

The  laws  of  geographical  distribution,  as  affect- 
ing mammalian  life,  have  been  reduced  to  great  ex- 
actness by  observations  continued  since  the  time  of 
Bufifon,  who  first  began  to  generalize  about  a  century 


ZOOLOGICAL   ZONES  1529 

ago  in  that  way,  noting  the  peculiarities  of  the  spe- 
cies of  South  American  animals.  The  most  impor- 
tant extension  of  this  branch  of  zoology  has  been 
due  to  recent  researches  and  discoveries  of  extinct 
species  of  the  class  Mammalia;  and  it  is  chiefly  in 
relation  to  the  modifications  of  zoological  ideas  pro- 
duced by  paleontology  that  a  few  brief  remarks  will 
here  be  made. 

The  Quadrumana,  or  order  of  apes,  monkeys,  and 
lemurs,  consist  of  three  chief  divisions — Catarhines, 
Platyrhines,  and  Strepsirhines.  The  first  family 
is  peculiar  to  the  Old  World;  the  second  to  South 
America;  the  third  has  the  majority  of  its  species 
and  its  chief  genus  (Lemur)  exclusively  in  Mada- 
gascar. Out  of  twenty-six  known  species  of  Lemu- 
ridae,  only  six  are  Asiatic  and  three  are  African. 

The  Catarhine  monkeys  include  the  Macaques, 
most  of  which  are  Asiatic,  a  few  are  African  and 
one  European;  the  Cercopitheques,  most  of  which 
are  African  and  a  few  Asiatic;  and  other  genera 
which  characterize  one  or  other  continent  exclu- 
sively. Thus  the  true  baboons  (Papio)  are  African, 
as  are  the  thumbless  monkeys  (Colobus)  and  the 
chimpanzees  (Troglodytes).  The  Semnopithecus, 
gibbons,  and  orangs  are  peculiarly  Asiatic.  Palae- 
ontology has  shown  that  a  macaque,  a  gibbon,  and 
an  orang  existed  during  the  older  Tertiary  times  in 
Europe,  and  that  Semnopithecus  existed  in  Miocene 
times  in  India.  But  all  the  fossil  remains  of  Quad- 
rumana in  the  Old  World  belong  to  the  family 
Catarhina,  which  is  still  exclusively  confined  to  that 
great  division  of  dry  land.  The  tailless  macaque 


1530  THE   STORY   OF   THE   UNIVERSE 

(Innus  silvanus)  of  Gibraltar  may  have  existed  in 
that  part  of  the  Old  World  before  Europe  was  sepa- 
rated by  the  Straits  of  Gibraltar  from  Africa. 
Fossil  remains  of  Quadrumana  have  been  discovered 
in  South  America;  they  indicate  Platyrhine  forms: 
a  species,  for  example,  allied  to  the  howlers  (My- 
cetes),  but  larger  than  any  now  known  to  exist,  has 
left  its  remains  in  Brazil. 

While  adverting  to  the  geographical  distribution 
of  Quadrumana,  I  would  contrast  the  peculiarly 
limited  range  of  the  orangs  and  chimpanzees  with 
the  cosmopolitan  powers  of  mankind.  The  two  spe- 
cies of  orang  (Pithecus)  are  confined  to  Borneo  and 
Sumatra;  the  two  species  of  chimpanzee  (Troglo- 
dytes) are  limited  to  an  intertropical  tract  of  the 
western  part  of  Africa.  They  appear  to  be  inex- 
orably bound  by  climatal  influences  regulating  the 
assemblage  of  certain  trees  and  the  production  of 
certain  fruits.  With  all  our  care,  in  regard  to  choice 
of  food,  clothing,  and  contrivances  for  artificially 
maintaining  the  chief  physical  conditions  of  their 
existence,  the  healthiest  specimens  of  orang  or 
chimpanzee,  brought  over  in  the  vigor  of  youth, 
perish  within  a  period  never  exceeding  three  years, 
and  usually  much'  shorter  in  England.  By  what 
metamorphoses,  may  we  ask,  has  the  alleged  hu- 
manized chimpanzee  or  orang  been  brought  to  en- 
dure all  climates?  The  advocates  of  transmutation 
have  failed  to  explain  them.  Certain  it  is  that  those 
physical  differences  in  cerebral,  dental,  and  osteo- 
logical  structure  which  place,  in  my  estimate  of 
them,  the  genus  Homo  in  a  distinct  group  of  the 


ZOOLOGICAL  ZONES  1531 

mammalian  class,  zoologically  of  higher  value  than 
the  order,  are  associated  with  equally  contrasted 
powers  of  endurance  of  different  climates,  whereby 
man  has  become  a  denizen  of  every  part  of  the  globe 
from  the  Torrid  to  the  Arctic  zones. 

Climate  rigidly  limits  the  range  of  the  Quadru- 
mana  latitudinally;  creational  and  geographical 
causes  limit  their  range  in  longitude.  Distinct 
genera  represent  each  other  in  the  same  latitudes  of 
the  New  and  Old  Worlds;  and  also,  in  a  great  de- 
gree, in  Africa  and  Asia.  But  the  development  of 
an  orang  out  of  a  chimpanzee,  or  reciprocally,  is 
physiologically  inconceivable. 

The  order  Ruminantia  is  principally  represented 
by  Old  World  species,  of  which  162  have  been  de- 
fined, while  only  24  species  have  been  discovered 
in  the  New  World,  and  none  in  Australia,  New 
Guinea,  New  Zealand,  or  the  Polynesian  Isles. 

The  camelopard  is  now  peculiar  to  Africa;  the 
musk-deer  to  Africa  and  Asia;  out  of  fifty  defined 
species  of  antelope,  only  one  is  known  in  America, 
and  none  in  the  central  and  southern  divisions  of  the 
New  Worldv.  The  bison  of  North  America  is  dis- 
tinct from  the  bison  of  Europe.  The  musk-ox  alone, 
peculiar  for  its  limitation,  to  high  northern  lati- 
tudes, roams  over  the  Arctic  coasts  of  both  Asia  and 
America.  The  deer  tribe  are  more  widely  dis- 
tributed. The  camels  and  dromedaries  of  the  Old 
World  are  represented  by  the  llamas  and  vicunas 
of  the  New.  As,  in  regard  to  a  former  (Tertiary) 
zoological  period,  the  fossil  Camilidae  of  Asia  are 
of  the  genus  Camilus,  so  those  of  America  are  of 


1532  THE   STORY   OF  THE   UNIVERSE 

the  genus  Auchenia.  This  geographical  restriction 
ruled  prior  to  any  evidence  of  man's  existence. 

Palaeontology  has  expanded  our  knowledge  of  the 
range  of  the  giraffe:  during  Miocene  or  old  Pliocene 
periods,  species  of  Camelopardalis  roamed  in  Asia 
and  Europe.  Passing  to  the  non-ruminant  Artio- 
dactyles,  geology  has  also  taught  us  that  the  hippo- 
potamus was  not  always  confined,  as  now,  to  African 
rivers,  but  bathed,  during  Pliocene  times,  in  those  of 
Asia  and  Europe.  But  no  evidence  has  yet  been  had 
that  the  giraffe  or  hippopotamus  were  ever  other  than 
Old  World  forms  of  Ungulata. 

With  respect  to  the  hog  tribe,  we  find  that  the  true 
swine  (Sus)  of  the  Old  World  are  represented  by 
peccaries  (Dicotyles)  in  the  New;  and  geology  has 
recently  shown  that  Tertiary  species  of  Dicotyles 
existed  in  North  as  well  as  South  America.  But  no 
true  Sus  has  been  found  fossil  in  either  division  of 
the  New  World,  nor  have  the  Dicotyles  been  found 
fossil  in  the  Old  World  of  the  geographer.  One  of 
the  earliest  forms  of  the  European  rhinoceros  was 
devoid  of  the  nasal  weapon. 

Geology  gives  a  wider  range  to  the  horse  and  ele- 
phant kinds  than  was  cognizant  to  the  student  of  liv- 
ing species  only.  The  existing  Equidae  and  Elephan- 
tidae  properly  belong,  or  are  limited,  to  the  Old 
World;  and  the  elephants  to  Asia  and  Africa,  the 
species  of  the  two  continents  being  quite  distinct. 
The  horse,  as  Buffon  remarked,  carried  terror  to  the 
eye  of  the  indigenous  Americans,  viewing  the  animal 
for  the  first  time,  as  it  proudly  bore  their  Spanish 
conqueror.  But  a  species  of  Equus  coexisted  with  the 


ZOOLOGICAL  ZONES  1533 

Megatherium  and  Megalonyx  in  both  South  and 
North  America,  and  perished  apparently  with  them, 
before  the  human  period.  Elephants  are  dependent 
chiefly  upon  trees  for  food.  One  species  now  finds 
conditions  of  existence  in  the  rich  forests  of  tropical 
Asia;  and  a  second  species  in  those  of  tropical  Africa. 
Why,  we  may  ask,  should  not  a  third  be  living  at  the 
expense  of  the  still  more  luxuriant  vegetation  watered 
by  the  Orinoco,  the  Essequibo,  the  Amazon,  and 
La  Plata,  in  tropical  America?  Geology  tells  us 
that  at  least  two  kinds  of  elephant  (Mastodon  An- 
dium  and  Mastodon  Humboldtii)  formerly  did  de- 
rive their  subsistence,  along  with  the  great  Me- 
gatheroid  beasts,  from  that  abundant  source.  Nay, 
more;  at  least  two  kinds  of  elephant  (Mastodon 
ohioticus  and  Elephas  texianus)  existed  in  the  warm 
and  temperate  latitudes  of  North  America.  Twice 
as  many  species  of  mastodon  and  elephant,  distinct 
from  all  the  others,  roamed  in  Pliocene  times  in  the 
same  latitude  of  Europe.  At  a  later  or  Pleistocene 
period,  a  huge  elephant,  clothed  with  wool  and  hair, 
obtained  its  food  from  hardy  trees,  such  as  now  grow 
in  the  65th  degree  of  north  latitude;  and  abundant 
remains  of  this  Elephas  primigenius  (as  it  has  been 
prematurely  called,  since  it  was  the  last  of  the  Brit- 
ish elephants)  have  been  found  in  temperate  and 
high  northern  latitudes  in  Europe,  Asia,  and  Amer- 
ica. This,  like  other  Arctic  animals,'  was  peculiar 
in  its  family  for  its  longitudinal  range.  The  musk 
buffalo  was  its  contemporary  in  England  and  Eu- 
rope, and  still  lingers  in  the  northernmost  parts  of 
America. 


1534  THE  STORY   OF  THE   UNIVERSE 

I  have  received  evidences  of  elephantine  species 
from  China  and  Australia,  proving  the  proboscidian 
pachyderms  to  have  been  the  most  cosmopolitan  of 
hoofed  herbivorous  quadrupeds.  Geology  extends 
the  geographical  range  of  the  sloths  and  arma- 
dillos from  South  to  North  America;  but  the  de- 
ductions from  recent  rich  discoveries  of  huge  ter- 
restrial forms  of  sloth,  of  gigantic  armadillos,  and 
large  anteaters  go  to  establish  the  fact  that  these 
peculiar  features  of  the  order  Bruta  have  ever  been, 
as  they  are  now,  peculiar  to  America;  that  several 
genera,  including  the  larger  species,  have  perished; 
and  that  the  range  of  their  still  existing  diminutive 
representatives  has  been  reduced  to  the  southern  di- 
vision of  the  New  World. 

Australia,  which  in  extent  of  dry  land  merits  to 
be  regarded  as  a  fifth  continent,  has  a  more  restricted 
and  peculiar  character  of  aboriginal  mammalian 
population  than  South  America.  It  is  emphatically 
the  "province"  of  those  quadrupeds  the  females  of 
which  are  provided  with  a  pouch  for  the  transport 
and  protection  of  their  prematurely  formed  young. 

One  genus  of  Marsupialia  (Didelphys  or  opos- 
sums, properly  so  called)  is  peculiar  to  America,  and 
is  there  the  sole  representative  of  the  order.  A  small 
kangaroo,  and  a  few  phalangers,  exist  in  islands  that 
link  the  Malayan  Archipelago  with  the  Australian 
world.  All  the  other  marsupial  genera  are  found 
in  Australasia,  comprising  New  Guinea,  Australia, 
and  Tasmania.  The  largest  and  most  destructive  of 
carnivorous  marsupials  are  peculiar  to  Tasmania. 

The  sum  of  all  the  evidence  from  the  fossil  world 


GEOGRAPHICAL  DISTRIBUTION  OF  ANIMALS        1535 

in  Australia  proves  its  mammalian  population  to  have 
been  essentially  the  same  in  Pleistocene,  if  not  Plio- 
cene, times  as  now;  only  represented,  as  the  Edentate 
mammals  in  South  America  were  then  represented, 
by  more  numerous  genera,  and  much  more  gigantic 
species  than  now  exist. 

In  the  Miocene  and  Eocene  tertiary  deposits,  mar- 
supial fossils  of  the  American  genus  Didelphys  have 
been  found,  both  in  France  and  England;  and  they 
are  associated  with  tapirs  like  that  of  America.  In 
a  more  ancient  geological  period,  remains  of  marsu- 
pials, some  insectivorous,  others  with  teeth,  have  been 
found  in  the  upper  Oolite. 

Thus  it  would  seem  that  the  deeper  we  penetrate 
the  earth,  or,  in  other  words,  the  further  we  recede 
in  time,  the  more  completely  we  are  absolved  from 
the  present  laws  of  geographical  distribution. 

GEOGRAPHICAL  DISTRIBUTION 
OF    ANIMALS.— WILLIAM    HUGHES 

THE  great  division  of  the  animal  kingdom  rec- 
ognized by  naturalists  is  that  into  vertebrate 
and  invertebrate  animals.  Vertebrated  animals  are 
those  which  possess  a  spinal  bone,  to  which  are  at- 
tached ribs,  constituting  the  framework  of  the  en- 
tire body.  All  animals  of  this  division  have  red 
blood.  The  vertebrate  animals  comprehend  fishes, 
reptiles,  birds,  and  mammalia.  This  last  term  is  in- 
clusive of  all  animals  that  suckle  their  young,  man 
among  the  number. 

The  class  mammalia  comprehends  the  following 


1536  THE  STORY   OF  THE   UNIVERSE 

orders:  i.  Carnivora  (flesh-eating,  as  the  lion,  tiger, 
etc.)  ;  2.  Ruminantia  (animals  that  chew  the  cud,  as 
the  camel,  ox,  sheep,  and  others)  ;  3.  Pachydermata 
(thick-skinned,  as  the  elephant,  horse,  etc.)  ;  4.  Ro- 
dentia  (gnawing,  as  the  beaver,  squirrel,  mice,  etc.)  ; 
5.  Edentata  (toothless,  as  the  anteater  and  arma- 
dillo) ;  6.  Quadrumma  (four-handed,  as  the  ape  and 
monkey  tribe)  ;  7.  Cherioptera  (having  winged  arms, 
as  bats)  ;  8.  Marsupialia  (pouched,  as  the  kangaroo 
and  opossum)  ;  9.  Cetaceae  (whales,  dolphins,  and  the 
various  seals) .  The  last-mentioned  of  these  divisions 
includes  members  (and  those  the  largest)  of  a  tribe 
assigned  in  popular  language  to  a  distinct  division  of 
the  animal  world — fishes.  But  the  whale  and  other 
creatures  of  its  order  possess  the  distinguishing  at- 
tribute of  the  mammalia — that  is,  they  afford  their 
nutriment  from  the  breast. 

The  animals  belonging  to  the  ruminating  and 
pachydermatous  orders  are  further  distinguished  as 
ungulata,  or  hoofed,  from  the  well-known  charac- 
teristic of  their  extremities.  The  domesticated  ani- 
mals that  are  used  as  food  by  man  are  almost  exclu- 
sively derived  from  this  class.  The  animals  included 
within  the  other  orders  of  mammalia  are  designated 
as  unguiculata,  from  their  extremities  terminating  in 
claws,  or  nails. 

The  invertebrate  animals,  or  those  which  have  no 
spinal  bone,  all  have  white  blood.  They  are  scien- 
tifically divided  into  molluscous  animals,  in  which 
the  muscles  are  attached  to  the  skin,  with  or  without 
the  protection  of  a  shell — such  as  snails  and  slugs; 
articulated  animals,  in  which  the  covering  of  the 


GEOGRAPHICAL  DISTRIBUTION  OF  ANIMALS        1537 

body  is  divided  into  rings  or  segments,  to  the  interior 
of  which  the  muscles  are  attached — comprehending 
all  insects  and  worms;  and  radiated  animals,  in  which 
the  organs  of  motion  or  sensation  radiate  from  a  com- 
mon centre — such  as  star-fish. 

The  opposite  sides  of  a  hill-range,  even  in  cases 
where  the  climate  is  nearly  identical,  and  the  passage 
from  one  slope  to  the  other  easy,  will  often  exhibit 
different  conditions  of  animal  life.  Isothermal  lines 
mark — with  hardly  less  precision  in  the  case  of  ani- 
mals than  of  plants — the  range  of  particular  families 
and  species,  in  the  direction  of  latitude  and  elevation 
alike.  The  fact  that  such  is  the  case  testifies  strongly 
to  the  force  of  those  instincts  with  which  all  animals 
are  endowed,  and  by  which  their  habits  are  regulated. 
The  powers  of  locomotion  possessed  by  animals 
might  at  first  sight  seem  calculated  to  favor  a  wider 
extension  of  geographical  range  than  belongs  to  vege- 
tables, and  in  the  well-known  instances  of  migratory 
species  (of  which  the  swallow  and  other  birds  are 
familiar  examples)  such  is  undoubtedly  the  case. 
But  even  these  migrations  are  confined  within  a  well- 
defined  range,  determined  by  conditions  of  climate, 
and  facility  of  obtaining  the  necessary  food.  Birds  in 
general  are  separated,  as  markedly  as  quadrupeds,  in 
respect  of  their  habitat,  or  geographical  range.  This 
is  equally  true,  indeed,  in  regard  to  every  one  of  the 
great  classes  into  which  the  animal  world  is  divided. 
Each  zone  of  the  ocean,  both  in  latitude  and  in  the 
direction  of  depth,  has  its  proper  forms  of  life. 

To  take  an  instance  from  land  animals,  the  ele- 
phant is  confined  by  natural  instinct  within  the  belt 


1538  THE   STORY   OF  THE   UNIVERSE 

of  the  warm  latitudes,  and  not  more  so  by  the  high 
temperature  which  such  latitudes  alone  enjoy  than 
by  the  limitation  of  its  necessary  food  to  the  regions 
which  are  its  proper  home.  Nowhere  else  but  with- 
in or  near  the  tropics  is  there  found  the  luxuriant 
abundance  of  forest  vegetation  which  the  elephant 
requires  to  make  sustenance  upon.  The  reindeer,  on 
the  other  hand,  is  as  characteristically  an  inhabitant 
of  polar  latitudes,  and  perishes  if  brought  within  the 
continued  influence  of  a  warmer  temperature  than 
that  of  his  native  region.  The  ibex  and  the  chamois, 
with  some  other  animals  of  the  goat  tribe,  frequent 
only  the  highest  and  least  accessible  portions  of  the 
mountain  region,  while  various  members  of  the  deer 
kind  range  over  the  lower  elevations  and  the  plains 
below.  Of  birds,  the  condor,  or  great  vulture  of  the 
Andes,  confines  his  range  within  the  region  of  the 
highest  peaks  of  the  mountain  region,  as  his  European 
congener — the  lammer-geyer,  or  vulture  of  the  Alps 
— does  in  another  part  of  the  globe.  In  the  moun- 
tainous portions  of  Great  Britain,  the  eagles  which 
(notwithstanding  the  keen  pursuit  of  the  sportsman) 
frequent  the  scarcely  accessible  crags  that  surround 
Loch  Maree  and  other  secluded  localities  of  the 
Highlands,  furnish  a  similar  instance.  Again,  the 
shark  is  the  well-known  scourge  of  the  warmer  belt 
of  ocean,  while  the  same  zone  of  sea  constitutes — 
from  its  high  temperature — a  region  through  which 
the  whale  never  passes. 

It  is,  besides,  equally  true  of  the  animal  as  of  the 
vegetable  kingdom,  that  every  region  of  the  globe  has 
its  own  proper  inhabitants,  different  in  species,  for 


GEOGRAPHICAL  DISTRIBUTION  OF  ANIMALS        1539 

the  most  part,  from  those  of  other  regions.  The  ani- 
mal life  of  the  Old  World  is  markedly  different  from 
that  of  the  New  World  in  correspondent  parallels, 
and  under  conditions  of  climate  which  are  in  all  im- 
portant regards  analogous.  Even  when  the  genera,  or 
families,  are  the  same,  the  species  are  in  nearly  all 
cases  distinct.  In  yet  higher  measure,  the  animal 
life  of  Australia  differs  from  that  of  other  divisions 
of  the  globe.  Whole  orders  of  the  animal  world  are 
wanting  in  Australian  zoology,  while  the  vast  major- 
ity of  its  animals  belong  to  a  division  which  is  alto- 
gether unrepresented  in  the  continents  of  the  Old 
World — that  is,  the  marsupial  tribe.  The  difference 
is  less  strongly  marked  in  the  case  of  the  adjacent  con- 
tinents of  the  Northern  Hemisphere  than  in  the  in- 
stances of  the  lands  lying  south  of  the  equator. 

The  natural  distribution  of  animals  has  been  im- 
portantly modified  by  human  agency.  This  is  espe- 
cially the  case  in  regard  to  those  divisions  of  the 
mammalia  which  comprehend  the  domestic  quadru- 
peds— the  horse,  dog,  ox,  sheep,  and  others.  Man 
has  carried  these  animals  with  him  in  his  migrations 
from  one  region  to  another,  and  has  thus  introduced 
new  species  (and  even  genera)  into  lands  where  they 
were  previously  unknown.  The  horse,  the  ox,  and 
the  common  sheep,  were  unknown  in  the  New  World 
prior  to  the  Spanish  discoveries  of  the  Fifteenth  and 
Sixteenth  Centuries,  but  speedily  became  naturalized 
there,  and,  in  the  case  of  the  two  first-named,  have 
long  since  reverted  to  a  condition  of  nature.  Wild 
horses  roam  by  thousands  over  the  savannas  and 
pampas  of  the  western  world.  Within  a  much  more 


1540  THE  STORY  OF  THE  UNIVERSE 

recent  period,  the  domestic  cattle  of  Europe  have 
been  introduced  into  the  Australian  continent,  and 
have  multiplied  there  to  an  extraordinary  degree.  Ef- 
forts are  now  making  to  introduce  into  Australia 
both  the  camel  of  the  Old  World  and  the  llama  of 
South  America.  The  hare  and  the  rabbit  of  Britain 
have  become  naturalized  in  the  more  southwardly  of 
the  Australian  colonies.  Similar  efforts  are  at  the 
present  time  directed  to  the  naturalization  in  the 
Australian  rivers  of  the  salmon  and  other  fish  that 
belong  to  the  streams  and  estuaries  of  Europe.  What 
has  been  accomplished,  in  these  and  many  similar 
cases,  by  the  direct  efforts  of  man,  has  resulted,  in 
the  case  of  many  of  the  smaller  animals,  from  his 
involuntary  agency,  or  from  accidental  causes.  The 
vessel  which  conveys  a  cargo  of  native  produce  from 
one  region  to  a  foreign  shore  has  often  carried  with 
it  the  germs  of  life  (vegetable  as  well  as  animal), 
besides,  in  numerous  instances,  the  smaller  members 
themselves  of  the  animal  world.  The  insects  that 
were  originally  confined  to  one  region  have  thus  be- 
come distributed  over  wide  areas  of  the  globe. 

A  few  other  of  the  more  obvious  differences  be- 
tween the  native  zoology  of  the  Old  and  New  Worlds 
may  be  adverted  to  with  advantage.  Among  carniv- 
orous quadrupeds,  the  lion,  tiger,  leopard,  panther, 
and  hyena  are  confined  to  the  eastern  half  of  the 
globe.  In  the  New  World,  the  puma  and  the  jaguar 
take  respectively  the  places  of  the  lion  and  tiger 
of  the  Asiatic  continent.  Of  the  ruminants,  the 
camel,  the  giraffe,  and  the  numerous  antelopes  are 
only  found  within  the  Old  World.  Of  the  pachyder- 


GEOGRAPHICAL  DISTRIBUTION  OF  ANIMALS        1541 

mata,  the  elephant,  the  rhinoceros,  the  hippopota- 
mus, the  horse,  the  zebra,  and  the  ass  are  unknown 
to  the  native  zoology  of  the  lands  lying  west  of  the 
Atlantic.  The  elephant,  and  also  the  rhinoceros,  be- 
long to  Asia  and  Africa  (the  species  being  different 
in  the  case  of  either  continent),  the  hippopotamus 
is  African  only:  the  zebra  (with  its  kindred  species, 
the  quagga)  is  also  peculiar  to  Africa.  Both  the 
horse  and  the  ass  probably  came  originally  from  Asia. 
Of  the  Quadrumana,  which  are  numerously  repre- 
sented in  the  zoology  of  either  hemisphere,  the  spe- 
cies (and,  in  most  cases,  the  genera)  are  distinct. 
Again,  the  opossums  of  the  New  World  belong  to  an 
order  (the  marsupial)  which  is  altogether  unrepre- 
sented in  the  three  continents  of  the  Old  World,  but 
which  exhibits  its  fullest  development  in  the  Austra- 
lian division  of  the  globe.  Numerous  other  instances 
might  be  adduced,  but  these  will  suffice.  They  serve 
to  show  that,  in  the  case  of  animals  as  of  plants,  par- 
ticular regions  constitute  centres  of  particular  forms 
of  life,  which  thence  spread,  within  certain  limits, 
around,  still  leaving  to  each  such  region  its  strongly 
marked  and  typical  characteristics  in  such  regards. 

Europe  exhibits,  in  its  indigenous  zoology,  a  char- 
acter less  marked  and  distinctive  than  belongs  to 
other  divisions  of  the  globe.  This  is  in  some  degree 
the  result  of  its  dense  population,  and  the  consequent 
diminution  in  the  number  of  wild  species,  but  in  a 
more  special  manner  results  from  its  conditions  of 
geographical  form  and  position.  Europe  is  less 
a  continent  in  itself  than  an  outlying  portion  of 
the  vast  and  unbroken  mass  of  the  Asiatic  continent. 


1542  THE   STORY   OF  THE   UNIVERSE 

No  strongly  marked  feature  intervenes  between  the 
plains  of  eastern  Europe  and  those  of  northern  Asia, 
and  within  the  continuous  range  of  land  that  extends, 
under  the  same  parallels,  from  the  Baltic  Sea  east- 
ward to  the  waters  of  the  Pacific  Ocean,  the  animal 
life  exhibits  for  the  most  part  identity  of  species  andi 
genera.  The  differences  between  them,  in  a  vast 
number  of  instances,  are  merely  varieties.  Many  of 
the  fur-bearing  animals  are  common  to  all  the  lands 
that  lie  within  the  Arctic  circle,  as  many  as  twenty- 
seven  species  being  native  to  Europe,  Asia,  and  North 
America  alike. 

The  vast  population  of  Europe  has  necessitated  the 
rearing  of  the  domestic  quadrupeds  in  vast  numbers, 
and  has  been  accompanied,  in  numerous  instances,  by 
the  extermination  of  the  wild  denizens  of  the  forest. 
It  would  seem  from  a  passage  in  Herodotus  (book 
vii,  125)  that  the  lion  once  frequented  the  woods  of 
Macedonia.  The  wild  boar,  bear,  and  the  wolf  were 
formerly  natives  of  the  British  Islands,  and  the  last 
named  animal  has  only  been  exterminated  from  with- 
in their  limits  during  the  last  hundred  and  fifty  years. 
The  beaver,  long  since  banished,  was  once  common 
on  the  banks  of  the  Welsh  streams.  The  fox  is  only 
preserved  by  artificial  means,  and  for  the  purposes 
of  the  chase.  The  wildcat,  now  rarely  seen,  and  that 
only  in  the  remoter  portions  of  the  Scotch  Highlands, 
was  formerly  common  within  the  English  forests. 
The  bustard,  a  bird  now  rarely  seen,  was  once  met 
with  in  huge  flights  on  the  plains  of  Norfolk  and  Suf- 
folk, while  huge  fen-eagles  frequented  the  marshy 
flats  of  the  adjacent  country. 


Extinct  Fishes,   Mollusca,  and  Crustacea 

Cepha'aspis;  2,  Pterichthys;  3,  Coccocosteus;  4,  Diplacanthus;  5,  Hoioptychms:  6. 

Osteolepis;  7,  12,  20,  Gasteropods;  8,  Crinoid;  9,  Eurypterus;  10,  13,  15,  18,  ic,, 

Trilobites;  14,  16,  17,  23,  C  ephalopods  (Ammonites);  21,  22,  Spirifers 


GEOGRAPHICAL  DISTRIBUTION  OF  ANIMALS        1543 

These  are  but  few  instances  of  the  way  in  which 
human  agency  modifies  the  distribution  of  animal 
life.  On  the  continent,  the  extermination  of  a  par- 
ticular species  is  of  course  more  difficult;  in  numer- 
ous cases  is  perhaps  altogether  impossible.  The  wolf 
inhabits  the  forests  of  continental  Europe,  from  the 
high  tracts  that  adjoin  the  Alps  and  the  Pyrenees 
northward  to  the  shores  of  the  Baltic  and  White  Seas. 
The  wild  boar  and  the  bear  (three  species  of  the  lat- 
ter— the  brown  and  the  black  in  the  wooded  regions 
of  the  south,  the  white  polar  bear  in  the  extreme 
north)  are  still  met  with.  The  urus  or  wild  ox  of 
the  Lithuanian  forests,  regarded  by  naturalists  as  the 
progenitor  of  our  common  domestic  cattle,  is  even 
yet  found  to  the  eastward  of  the  Baltic. 

Europe,  however,  has  no  one  of  the  great  families 
of  mammalia  that  can  be  looked  on  as  peculiarly  its 
own,  or,  in  other  words,  as  giving  it  a  distinctive 
zoology — like  the  antelopes  of  Southern  and  Western 
Asia,  the  numerous  pachyderms  of  the  African  con- 
tinent ,the  llama  tribe  of  the  New  World,  or  the  mar- 
supials of  Australia.  Of  the  total  number  of  Euro- 
pean mammalia,  not  exceeding  a  hundred  and  eighty, 
only  fifty-eight  are  peculiar  to  this  continent,  and 
none  of  the  larger  quadrupeds  is  included  among 
them. 

The  domesticated  animals  that  are  so  numerously 
reared  in  every  part  of  Europe  have  probably  been, 
in  most  cases,  derived  from  indigenous  species.  The 
urus  or  wild  ox  has  been  the  parent  of  the  common 
ox,  and  the  wild  boar  of  the  domestic  pig;  the  goat, 
and,  in  the  extreme  north,  the  reindeer,  are  also  na- 


1544  THE   STORY  OF  THE   UNIVERSE 

tive  to  the  European  soil.  The  moufflon  of  Sardinia 
was  perhaps  the  ancestor  of  at  least  some  of  our 
breeds  of  sheep. 

The  birds  of  Europe  display  a  greater  number  and 
variety  of  species  than  its  land  animals.  This  is  es- 
pecially the  case  in  regard  to  the  family  of  aquatic 
birds — always  most  numerous  in  the  higher  latitudes. 
More  than  thirty  species  of  the  duck  tribe  alone  be- 
long to  Northern  Europe,  some  of  them  being  com- 
mon to  the  corresponding  latitudes  of  Asia  and  the 
New  World.  The  stork  and  the  crane  (both  of  mi- 
gratory habits)  belong  to  the  maritime  regions  of 
Western  Europe;  the  pelican,  the  spoon-bill,  and  the 
scarlet  flamingo,  to  the  shores  of  the  Mediterranean. 

Europe  has  fewer  species  (as  well  as  fewer  indi- 
viduals) of  the  reptile  kind  than  either  of  the  other 
divisions  of  the  globe — a  happy  exemption,  which  is 
due  to  its  temperate  climate.  The  only  venomous 
serpents  found  in  Europe  are  three  species  of  viper, 
all  of  them  confined  to  its  southern  snores :  the  com- 
mon viper  of  middle  and  Northern  Europe  is  innoc- 
uous. 'Lizards  are  common  in  the  south,  as  many  as 
sixty-three  species  being  enumerated. 

The  waters  of  Europe  exhibit  a  rich  variety  of  fish, 
a  vast  number  of  them  useful  as  to  the  food  of  man. 
Each  of  its  inland  seas  has  its  own  peculiar  tribes,  the 
Mediterranean  basin  displaying  the  richest  diversity. 
Among  the  inhabitants  of  the  Mediterranean  are  sev- 
eral sharks,  swordfish,  dolphins,  and  six  species  of 
tunny — the  last-mentioned  the  largest  of  edible  fish. 
The  anchovy  is  peculiar  to  the  Mediterranean.  The 
seas  that  lie  around  the  British  Islands  abound  in 


GEOGRAPHICAL  DISTRIBUTION  OF  ANIMALS        1545 

the  gregarious  tribes  of  edible  fish,  as  the  cod,  turbot, 
mackerel,  herring,  pilchard,  and  many  others.  The 
stromming  of  the  Baltic  is  of  like  utility.  The 
salmon  frequents  the  estuaries  and  river-mouths 
throughout  the  coast-line  of  Western  Europe  to  the 
northward  of  the  Bay  of  Biscay,  becoming  more  nu- 
merous as  higher  latitudes  are  reached. 

The  generally  temperate  climate  of  Europe 
secures  it,  for  the  most  part,  an  exemption  from  the 
dense  swarms  of  insect-life  that  belong  to  warmer 
latitudes.  Yet  between  eight  or  nine  thousand  species 
are  enumerated  as  native  to  the  British  Islands  alone. 
The  common  honey-bee  is  distributed  all  over  south- 
ern and  Central  Europe,  and  is  probably  indigenous. 
The  locust  is  only  an  occasional  visitor  to  its  shores, 
and  belongs  to  the  other  side  of  the  Mediterranean. 
The  silk-worm  was  introduced  from  China  toward 
the  close  of  the  Fifth  Century  of  our  era. 

Asia  is  rich  in  variety  of  animal  life,  and  especially 
so  as  regards  the  class  mammalia,  all  the  orders  of 
which  but  two  (the  marsupials  and  the  edentata)  are 
represented  in  its  zoology.  Of  domesticated  quadru- 
peds, the  camel,  ox,  goat,  and  sheep,  among  the  rumi- 
nants, with  the  horse,  the  ass,  and  the  elephant,  among 
pachyderms,  are  natives  of  Asia.  The  camel,  of 
which  there  are  several  species,  all  natives  of  this 
continent,  ranges  from  the  shores  of  the  Indian  Ocean 
and  Red  Sea  as  far  north  as  Lake  Baikal.  The  rein- 
deer and  elk  frequent  the  Siberian  and  Mongolian 
plains,  migrating  from  the  former  locality  southward 
with  the  approach  of  winter.  Numerous  varieties  of 
the  ox  tribe  (including  the  common  ox,  aurochs,  buf- 


1546  THE  STORY  OF  THE   UNIVERSE 

falo,  and  yak)  are  reared  by  the  Tartar  nations  who 
inhabit  the  upland  plains  of  the  interior.  The  ante- 
lope and  deer  tribe,  of  which  there  are  a  vast  number 
of  species,  belong  to  the  western  and  southwestern 
regions  of  the  continent.  The  plains  of  Turkestan,  to 
the  eastward  of  the  Caspian,  are  perhaps  the  original 
country  of  the  horse.  The  wild  ass  is  indigenous  to 
Western  Asia.  The  elephant  is  not  found  to  the  west 
of  India,  nor  to  the  north  of  the  Himalaya  Moun- 
tains; it  belongs  only  to  the  two  Indian  peninsulas, 
with  Ceylon,  and  some  of  the  smaller  islands  of  the 
Malay  archipelago. 

Among  Asiatic  carnivora  are  the  lion,  tiger,  leop- 
ard, panther,  and  ounce,  of  the  cat  genus:  the  wolf, 
hyena,  and  jackal,  of  the  dog  tribe.  Two  species  of 
bear  are  native  to  the  Himalaya  region  (the  snow- 
bear,  and  the  black-bear)  and  the  polar  bear  belongs 
to  the  Arctic  coasts  of  the  continent.  The  lion  of 
Asia  is  now  restricted  to  the  region  which  extends 
from  the  banks  of  the  Euphrates  and  Tigris  to  the 
western  coasts  of  the  Indian  peninsula,  including  the 
deserts  of  Mesopotamia,  Persia,  and  Hindostan.  The 
tiger  has  a  more  extensive  range,  and  inhabits  all  the 
middle  and  southeastern  divisions  of  the  continent. 
The  hyena,  and  also  the  jackal,  belong  to  the  western 
half  of  Southern  Asia;  the  wolf  frequents  the  north- 
ern and  western  plains,  and  is  found  in  a  range  of 
country  extending  from  Siberia,  through  Turkestan, 
to  the  shores  of  the  Mediterranean.  The  dog  and 
the  fox  are  common  all  over  the  continent,  and  pre- 
sent numerous  varieties;  in  Kamtchatka  and  some 
parts  of  Siberia,  the  former  animal  is  used  as  a  beast 


GEOGRAPHICAL  DISTRIBUTION  OF  ANIMALS        1547 

of  burden,  and  is  trained  to  draw  the  sledges  over  the 
vast  plains  of  ice  and  snow. 

Numerous  fur-bearing  animals  occur  in  Siberia, 
including  the  bear,  glutton,  badger,  wolf,  fox,  lynx, 
pole-cat,  weasel,  ermine,  marten,  otter,  sable,  squir- 
rel, beaver,  hare,  and  the  reindeer:  many  of  these 
belong  also  to  the  northern  regions  of  Europe.  The 
quadrumana  are  found  in  the  south  and  southeast  of 
the  continent  and  the  islands  of  the  Malay  archi- 
pelago ;  the  largest  and  most  remarkable  among  them 
— the  orang-outang — is  restricted  to  the  Malayan 
peninsula  and  the  islands  of  Borneo  and  Sumatra. 
The  gibbons  (or  long-armed  apes)  belong  exclu- 
sively to  Asia,  and  abound  in  its  southeastern  parts. 
Bats  are  more  numerous  in  the  islands  of  the  Asiatic 
archipelago  than  on  the  continent. 

Asia  is  less  rich  in  variety  of  birds  than  in  quad- 
rupeds, but  (with  the  exception  of  the  turkey,  which 
is  a  native  of  the  New  World,  and  of  the  guinea- 
fowl,  which  is  African)  all  our  domestic  poultry 
came  originally  from  this  division  of  the  globe. 
Among  ats  birds  of  prey  are  eagles,  vultures,  falcons, 
owls,  and  hawks;  but  although  individually  abun- 
dant, the  species  of  these  are  not  numerous.  Song- 
birds are  numerous  in  western  Asia,  but  are  com- 
paratively scarce  in  the  eastern  division  of  the  con- 
tinent, where,  however  (especially  among  the  islands 
of  the  Malay  archipelago  and  in  China),  birds  of 
beautiful  plumage  abound.  The  peacock  is  a  native 
of  India,  the  golden  pheasants  belong  to  China,  and 
the  birds  of  paradise  to  New  Guinea  and  the  ad- 
jacent islands. 


1548  THE  STORY  OF  THE   UNIVERSE 

Reptiles  are  less  numerous  in  Asia  than  in  some 
other  parts  of  the  globe,  but  are  sufficiently  common 
in  the  southeastern  parts  of  the  continent  and  the  ad- 
jacent islands.  The  python  (analogous  to  the  boa- 
constrictor  of  the  New  World)  lurks  in  the  morasses 
and  swamps  of  the  East  Indian  islands;  the  cobras, 
with  several  other  kinds  of  venomous  serpents,  are 
found  in  the  peninsulas  of  Eastern  and  Western  In- 
dia. Both  sea  and  fresh-water  snakes  are  numerous. 
Among  insects,  the  locust  is  abundant  in  Western 
Asia,  and  commits  the  most  dreadful  ravages  among 
the  crops  in  Syria,  Persia,  and  Arabia. 

Africa  is  yet  richer  than  Asia  in  regard  to  the  ani- 
mal kingdom.  Of  the  total  number  of  mammalia, 
more  than  a  fourth  occur  in  this  division  of  the  Old 
World,  and  fewer  than  a  sixth  of  the  number  are 
common  to  Africa  with  either  of  the  other  continents. 
It  is  in  the  carnivora,  ruminants,  pachyderms,  and 
quadrumana,  that  African  zoology  is  more  especially 
rich.  Only  one  order,  the  marsupial,  is  unrepre- 
sented in  it.  Nor  is  the  varied  abundance  of  animal 
life  in  this  region  of  the  globe  confined  to  species; 
the  development  of  individual  life  within  its  vast 
and  almost  boundless  solitudes  is  yet  more  char- 
acteristic. 

Among  African  beasts  of  prey  are  the  lion,  pan- 
ther, leopard,  wolf,  fox,  hyena,  and  jackal.  Three 
varieties  of  the  lion  occur — that  of  Northern  Africa, 
of  the  countries  on  the  Senegal,  and  of  the  extreme 
south,  toward  the  Orange  River.  There  are  two 
hyenas — one,  the  spotted  hyena,  a  native  of  Southern 
Africa;  the  other,  the  striped  hyena,  indigenous  to 


GEOGRAPHICAL  DISTRIBUTION  OF  ANIMALS        1549 

the  more  northerly  parts  of  the  continent,  and  extend- 
ing its  range  from  Abyssinia  and  Barbary  into  West- 
ern Asia.  The  wolf  and  the  jackal  belong  to  North- 
ern Africa. 

Of  ruminants,  there  are  no  less  than  sixty  species 
of  the  antelope  kind,  which  is  especially  abundant 
in  Southern  Africa.  The  cameleopard  or  giraffe  is 
peculiar  to  this  continent,  and  ranges  from  the  banks 
of  the  Gariep  to  the  southern  borders  of  the  Sahara, 
but  is  not  found  upon  the  western  coasts.  Several 
species  of  buffalo  occur  in  a  wild  state,  and  are  jnost 
abundant  within  the  outlying  districts  of  the  Cape 
Colony.  Sheep  and  goats  abound  in  most  parts  of 
Africa,  but  are  probably  not  indigenous;  both  in 
Barbary  and  near  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope — at  the 
opposite  extremities  of  the  continent — are  found 
sheep  with- broad,  fat  tails,  so  large  as  sometimes  to 
weigh  from  ten  to  thirty  pounds.  The  camel  of 
Africa  is  found  all  over  its  northern  and  central 
regions. 

Of  the  Pachydermata,  or  thick-skinned  animals, 
the  most  characteristic  are  the  elephant,  rhinoceros, 
and  hippopotamus.  The  elephant  is  found  dispersed, 
in  immense  herds  of  from  one  to  three  hundred,  all 
over  the  wooded  regions  of  Central  and  Southern 
Africa,  and  the  rhinoceros  frequents  principally  the 
same  localities.  The  ivory  supplied  by  the  tusks  of 
the  former  is  one  of  the  most  valuable  native  products 
of  this  quarter  of  the  globe.  The  rhinoceros  is 
valued  chiefly  for  its  hide,  which  is  made  into  shields 
and  harness.  The  hippopotamus  is  found  in  the 
upper  part  of  the  Nile  valley,  and  in  all  the  lakes 


1660  THE  STORY  OF  THE  UNIVERSE 

and  rivers  to  the  southward  of  the  Great  Desert — 
including  the  Senegal,  the  Gambia,  the  Congo,  and 
the  Gariep.  This  animal  is  peculiar  to  Africa;  its 
teeth  consist  of  the  finest  ivory,  for  the  sake  of  which 
it  is  hunted  by  the  settlers  of  the  Cape.  All  three 
of  these  animals  are  used  as  food  by  the  native  races 
of  the  South  African  interior. 

The  wild  boar  is  found  in  some  parts  of  Africa: 
the  zebra,  dow,  and  quagga  (all  peculiar  to  this  con- 
tinent) abound  in  its  central  and  southern  regions, 
particularly  in  the  arid  plains  in  the  neighborhood 
of  the  Orange  River.  Of  the  African  Quadrumana, 
monkeys,  baboons,  apes,  and  lemurs  abound  in  the 
forests  throughout  every  part  of  the  continent. 

The  chimpanzee  of  the  western  coasts  (from  the 
neighborhood  of  Sierra  Leone  to  the  loth  parallel 
of  S.  latitude)  makes  nearer  approach  to  the  human 
form  than  the  orang-outang  of  Southeastern  Asia, 
but  is  surpassed  in  this  respect  by  the  gorilla,  one 
of  the  largest  of  the  ape  tribe,  which  inhabits  the 
forests  in  the  neighborhood  of  the  Gaboon  River 
(o°  30'  N.  lat.). 

Bats  are  numerous  in  Africa,  and  most  of  the  spe- 
cies inhabiting  this  continent  are  peculiar  to  it.  The 
Rodentia  are  also  for  the  most  part  of  peculiar  spe- 
cies; among  them  are  hares,  rabbits,  jerboas,  squir- 
rels, rats,  and  mice. 

Among  birds,  the  ostrich  is  confined  to  Africa,  but 
ranges  from  its  southern  extremity  to  the  northern 
borders  of  the  Great  Desert.  Its  feathers  form  a 
highly  valued  article  of  traffic,  and  the  bird  is  do- 
mesticated in  many  parts  of  Africa  for  the  sake  of 


GEOGRAPHICAL  DISTRIBUTION  OF  ANIMALS        1551 

procuring  these  free  from  injury.  The  vulture  (of 
which  two  species  occur — one  in  Northern  Africa 
and  the  other  in  the  neighborhood  of  the  Cape) 
serves  here,  as  elsewhere,  to  preserve  the  air  from 
impurity,  by  feeding  on  the  carcasses  of  animals,  and 
divides  with  the  hyena  the  office  of  scavenger.  The 
owl,  falcon,  and  eagle  are  also  enumerated  among 
the  African  birds  of  prey.  Of  gallinaceous  birds 
Africa  possesses  only  the  guinea-fowl;  but  the  do- 
mestic poultry  are  numerously  reared,  though  not 
indigenous.  The  woods  of  tropical  Africa  abound  in 
numberless  varieties  of  parrots  and  paroquets,  be- 
sides many  other  birds  of  bright  and  gaudy  plumage 
— as  the  beautiful  sun-birds  (which  inhabit  the 
western  coasts,  and  are  scarcely  larger  than  the  hum- 
ming-birds of  America),  together  with  the  golden- 
colored  orioles,  crested  hoopoes,  bee-eaters,  and  others. 
The  honey-suckers,  which  abound  in  the  neighbor- 
hood of  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  feed  entirely  upon 
the  nectar  or  saccharine  juice  of  the  proteas  and  sim- 
ilar plants.  The  sun-birds  also  occur  in  Southern 
Africa,  and  rival  those  of  India  and  the  Gambia  in 
the  brilliancy  of  their  colors. 

Lizards,  serpents,  and  reptiles  of  every  descrip- 
tion abound  in  various  parts  of  the  African  continent, 
though  its  general  aridity,  throughout  extensive  re- 
gions, is  less  favorable  to  the  development  of  reptile 
life  than  in  the  case  of  correspondent  latitudes  else- 
where. The  crocodile  inhabits  all  the  large  rivers 
of  tropical  Africa,  and  is  abundant  in  the  lower  por- 
tion of  the  Nile.  The  huge  python,  sometimes 
twenty- two  feet  in  length  (though  inferior  in  size 


1552  THE  STORY   OF  THE   UNIVERSE 

to  the  boa  of  the  New  World),  is  found  in  the 
swamps  and  morasses  of  the  western  coast,  and  some 
species  of  the  cobra  (or  hooded  snake)  occur — 
chiefly  in  Southern  Africa  and  on  the  shores  of 
Guinea.  Insects  abound,  both  in  species  and  as  in- 
dividuals; among  them  is  the  locust,  which  at  inter- 
vals ravages  all  the  northern  parts  of  the  continent. 
But  the  termites,  or  white  ants,  of  Western  Africa 
are  the  most  celebrated  members  of  the  insect  family, 
and  effect  the  most  extraordinary  destruction  of  fur- 
niture, books,  clothes,  food,  and  everything  that 
comes  in  their  way.  They  build  pyramidal  or  con- 
ical nests,  firmly  cemented  together,  and  divided 
into  several  apartments — so  large  that  at  first  sight 
they  appear  in  the  distance  like  the  villages  of  the 
natives.  Both  the  bee  and  the  wasp  are  numerously 
distributed,  but  the  bee  has  not  been  domesticated  by 
any  of  the  native  people  of  this  continent ;  it  is,  how- 
ever, reared  by  the  Arabs  in  Northern  Africa. 

The  New  World  exhibits,  through  its  vast  pro- 
longation in  the  direction  of  latitude,  a  development 
of  animal  life  which  is  almost  infinitely  varied,  and 
which  differs  in  many  essential  regards  from  that  be- 
longing to  either  of  the  continents  of  the  Eastern 
Hemisphere.  Each  of  the  nine  orders  of  Mammalia 
is  represented  within  its  limits,  but  many  of  the  most 
attractive  and  valuable  members  of  the  animal  life 
of  Asia  and  Africa  are  nevertheless  wanting.  Amer- 
ica has  neither  the  elephant  nor  the  camel;  and 
neither  the  horse,  the  ox,  the  sheep,  nor  the  hog  is 
indigenous  to  it. 

The  Carnivora  of  the  New  World  are  inferior  in 


GEOGRAPHICAL  DISTRIBUTION  OF  ANIMALS        1553 

size,  strength,  and  ferocity  to  those  of  Asia  and 
Africa.  In  place  of  the  lion,  America  has  only  the 
puma — a  smaller  and  less  powerful  creature.  The 
tiger  of  Southern  Asia  is  represented  by  the  jaguar, 
a  somewhat  smaller  animal,  but  the  most  powerful 
of  the  American  carnivora.  In  North  America,  how- 
ever, the  numerous  bears  are  distinguished  by  their 
size  and  power,  particularly  the  grizzly  bear  of  the 
countries  which  border  upon  the  Rocky  Mountains. 
The  great  white  bear  of  the  polar  regions  is  com- 
mon to  the  high  latitudes  of  either  hemisphere. 
North  America,  which  is  more  strictly  continental  in 
extent  than  the  southern  half  of  the  New  World, 
possesses,  indeed,  other  types  of  animal  life  which 
rival  those  of  the  Eastern  Hemisphere.  Among  these 
are  the  majestic  bison,  or  American  buffalo,  together 
with  the  elk  or  moose-deer,  occupying  a  place  simi- 
lar to  the  reindeer  of  Northern  Europe  and  Asia. 
Several  varieties  of  the  deer-kind  occur  in  the  north- 
ern half  of  the  continent,  together  with  the  musk-ox, 
the  big-horned  sheep,  and  the  Rocky  Mountain  goat, 
which  are  peculiar  to  this  region. 

The  tapir  and  the  peccary  (an  animal  of  the  hog 
kind)  range  all  over  the  plains  of  South  America, 
and  the  former  is  also  found  on  the  coast  of  Central 
America.  The  puma  (or  cougar)  occurs  on  the 
Mexican  Isthmus,  and  even  as  far  northward  as  the 
45th  parallel,  though  found  most  numerously  in  the 
southern  half  of  the  continent,  where  its  range  ex- 
tends to  within  a  few  degrees  of  the  Strait  of  Magel- 
lan. The  jaguar  is  found  in  the  coast  regions  of  the 
Mexican  Isthmus,  as  well  as  the  forests  of  Brazil 


1564  THE   STORY   OF   THE   UNIVERSE 

and  the  adjoining  regions  of  South  America.  The 
lynx  and  the  wolf  belong  to  the  colder  tracts  of  North 
America. 

The  opossums  are  numerous  in  South  America, 
and  one  species  is  met  with  in  the  United  States 
(Virginia)  ;  this  family  (Marsupialia)  is  altogether 
absent  from  the  eastern  continent,  but  is  fully  de- 
veloped in  the  Australian  division  of  the  globe. 
The  beaver  abounds  in  the  colder  latitudes  of  North 
America,  together  with  a  vast  number  of  other  fur- 
bearing  animals;  as  raccoons,  martens,  squirrels,  sea- 
otters,  minks,  muskrats,  ermines,  foxes,  wolverines, 
and  hares. 

The  llama  tribe  (comprehending,  besides  the 
llama,  the  alpaca,  vicuna,  and  others),  is  peculiar 
to  South  America.  Its  members  are  found  through- 
out the  prolonged  Cordilleras  of  the  western  side  of 
that  continent,  from  Chili  to  New  Granada,  dwell- 
ing always  at  considerable  heights  above  the  level  of 
the  sea.  The  llama  belongs  to  the  same  order  (Ru- 
minantia)  as  the  camel  of  the  OldWorld,and  supplies 
some  of  the  uses  of  that  animal  as  a  beast  of  burden. 
Prior  to  the  Spanish  conquest,  the  llama  was,  indeed, 
the  only  beast  of  burden  which  the  natives  of  South 
America  possessed.  The  tapir  of  the  same  continent 
(an  animal  about  the  size  of  a  small  cow,  and  readily 
distinguished  by  the  downward  bend  of  its  snout) 
belongs  to  the  order  of  pachyderms.  Two  species  of 
tapir,  both  of  them  peculiar  to  that  region,  inhabit 
South  America:  a  third  species  is  native  to  the  island 
of  Sumatra,  and  the  adjacent  Malay  peninsula,  in 
Southeastern  Asia. 


GEOGRAPHICAL  DISTRIBUTION  OF  ANIMALS        1555 

The  paca  and  cutia  (or  agouti)  both  of  a  family 
which  is  peculiar  to  South  America,  take  the  place 
of  the  hare  and  rabbit  of  the  Old  World,  and  belong, 
like  those  animals,  to  the  order  of  rodents.  Both  are 
used  as  food.  The  capybara  and  the  common  guinea- 
pig  belong  to  the  same  order.  The  chinchilla,  an- 
other of  the  South  American  rodents,  valued  for  its 
delicate  fur,  is  confined  to  the  southern  portions  of 
the  Andes. 

The  sloth,  ant-eater,  and  armadillo  (all  belonging 
to  the  order  of  Edentata),  are  natives  of  South 
America. 

Monkeys  are  exceedingly  numerous  all  over  that 
continent,  especially  in  the  forests  of  Brazil.  These, 
however,  are  different  in  species  from  the  monkeys 
of  the  Eastern  Hemisphere ;  they  are  of  smaller  size, 
and  (with  the  exception  of  one  nearly  tailless  spe- 
cies, found  within  the  forests  of  the  Upper  Amazons, 
within  a  very  limited  area)  all  possess  tails,  mostly 
prehensile.  None  of  the  apes  of  the  New  World 
makes  the  same  approach  to  the  human  form  which 
is  found  either  in  the  chimpanzee  and  gorilla  of 
Western  Africa  or  the  orang  of  Southeastern  Asia. 
Toward  the  close  of  the  day  the  howling  monkeys  of 
Brazil  make  the  woods  resound  with  the  most  fright- 
ful cries;  but  they  are  neither  of  large  size  nor  of 
formidable  powers.  The  family  of  lemurs,  so  abun- 
dant in  the  eastern  half  of  the  globe,  has  not  a  single 
representative  in  the  New  World.  The  marmosets, 
a  family  confined  to  America,  are  numerous  within 
the  regions  of  the  lower  Amazons. 

Bats  are  very  numerous  in  South  America — more 


1556  THE   STORY   OF   THE   UNIVERSE 

so  than  in  any  other  part  of  the  world :  among  them 
is  the  large  vampire-bat,  to  which  popular  rumor  has 
assigned  the  most  bloodthirsty  propensities,  though 
it  is  in  reality  perfectly  harmless,  feeding  chiefly 
upon  fruits,  with  a  few  insects.  All  the  American 
bats  differ  in  species  from  those  of  the  eastern  con- 
tinent. 

The  ornithology  of  tropical  America  exceeds  in 
splendor  that  of  any  other  region  of  the  globe. 
Among  the  principal  birds  of  prey  are  several  spe- 
cies of  eagle,  including  the  large  white-headed 
eagle  of  the  United  States,  with  vultures,  hawks, 
kites,  and  owls.  South  America,  however,  possesses 
the  largest  of  the  vulture  tribe — the  gigantic  condor  of 
the  Andes,  which  is  confined  to  the  higher  peaks  of 
those  mountains,  bordering  on  the  limits  of  the  snowy 
region.  This  is  one  of  the  most  powerful  and  ra- 
pacious of  birds,  and  commits  numerous  ravages 
among  the  cattle,  deer,  and  other  animals.  The 
American  ostrich,  or  emu,  which  dwells  in  the  pam- 
pas of  that  region,  is  also  distinguished  by  its  size. 
The  turkey  is  American,  and  is  the  only  one  of  the 
domestic  poultry  that  has  been  derived  from  the  New 
World.*  The  toucans,  distinguished  by  their  enor- 
mous bills,  are  peculiar  to  America. 

*  The  turkey  had  been  domesticated  by  the  Mexicans,  from 
whom  the  Spaniards  introduced  it  into  Europe.  It  had  already 
become  tolerably  common  in  England  before  the  close  of  the 
Sixteenth  Century,  and  in  Spain  and  the  south  of  Europe  much 
earlier  in  date. 

The  potato,  maize,  the  cinchonas,  tobacco,  and  the  turkey, 
have  been  pronounced  the  five  great  gifts  of  the  New  World 
to  the  Old. 


GEOGRAPHICAL  DISTRIBUTION  OF  ANIMALS        1557 

The  humming-birds  are  peculiar  to  the  western 
continent,  and  in  the  tropical  regions  of  America 
various  birds  of  the  most  glittering  plumage,  to- 
gether with  numberless  fire-flies,  lend  an  almost 
magical  charm  to  the  aspect  of  nature.  The  range 
of  the  humming-birds  extends  over  the  whole  con- 
tinent to  the  southward  of  the  42d  parallel  (north 
lat.)  and  stretches  upon  the  western  side  of  North 
America  as  high  as  the  parallel  of  60° — an  evidence 
of  the  superior  warmth  which  distinguishes  that  side 
of  the  American  continent. 

Both  reptiles  and  insects  are  abundant  in  the  New 
World,  which,  owing  to  its  excessive  moisture  and 
dense  vegetation,  is  peculiarly  suited  to  the  develop- 
ment of  these  departments  of  the  natural  kingdom. 
Venomous  serpents  are  more  numerous  in  tropical 
America  than  in  any  other  part  of  the  globe.  The 
rattlesnake  occurs  in  both  divisions  of  the  continent, 
within  the  parallels  of  44°  to  the  northward  and  of  30° 
to  the  south  of  the  equator ;  the  huge  boa-constrictor, 
the  largest  of  the  serpent  tribe,  and  the  terror  even 
of  the  natives,  dwells  in  the  marshes  and  swamps  of 
South  America.  Huge  caymans,  iguanas,  and  other 
lizards,  with  numberless  alligators  and  water-snakes, 
abound  in  the  rivers  and  temporary  lagoons  of  the 
same  region. 

Australia  possesses  a  zoology  which  is  more  dis- 
tinctive than  that  of  any  other  part  of  the  world.  Its 
native  insects,  reptiles,  birds,  and  land  animals  are 
all  strikingly  different  from  those  of  other  regions. 
The  difference  is  greatest  (or,  at  any  rate,  most  ob- 
vious to  ordinary  observation)  in  the  case  of  its  land 


1558  THE  STORY  OF  THE   UNIVERSE 

animals.  Two-thirds  of  the  Australian  Mammalia 
belong  to  the  marsupial  order,  and  the  kangaroo,  the 
largest  member  of  that  family,  surpasses  in  size  any 
other  of  its  indigenous  quadrupeds.  The  Quad- 
rumana,  pachyderms,  and  ruminants  are  altogether 
unrepresented,  nor  are  there  any  of  the  larger  car- 
nivora,  the  native  dog  (already  verging  on  extinc- 
tion) being  the  chief  among  them.  In  the  present 
day  large  numbers  of  the  Australian  population  are 
employed  in  rearing  the  domestic  cattle  of  Europe. 
Australia  forms  in  all  regards  a  distinct  zoological 
province,  and  its  insulated  position  has  tended,  in 
greater  measure  than  is  the  case  with  any  other  part 
of  the  world,  to  confine  the  distinguishing  features 
of  its  fauna  within  its  own  proper  limits.  The  kan- 
garoo family  includes  numerous  distinct  species, 
from  the  full-sized  kangaroo  down  to  the  kangaroo- 
rat.  But  not  a  single  one  of  the  tribe  is  found  beyond 
the  limits  of  Australia  and  the  neighboring  island 
of  Tasmania.  The  opossums,  which  belong  to  the 
same  order,  are  only  found  elsewhere  in  the  New 
World.  The  most  remarkable,  however,  among  the 
members  of  the  Australian  animal  world  is  that 
popularly  known  as  the  duck-bill  (platypus,  or 
ornithorynchus),  which  constitutes  a  puzzle  to  the 
naturalist.  This  is  a  semi-aquatic  creature,  about 
twelve  or  thirteen  inches  in  length,  with  the  body  of 
an  otter,  a  bill  like  that  of  the  duck,  and  which  lays 
eggs.  As  one  of  the  tribe  of  Mammalia  (to  which, 
by  its  habits,  it  belongs) ,  the  platypus  must  be  classed 
under  the  head  of  Edentata ;  while,  on  the  other  hand, 
as  being  oviparous,  it  may  be  regarded  as  belonging 


GEOGRAPHICAL  DISTRIBUTION  OF  ANIMALS        1559 

to  a  totally  distinct  division  of  the  animal  world. 
The  platypus  frequents  the  margins  of  creeks  and 
pools,  but  remains  mostly  in  the  water,  and  is  only 
approached  with  difficulty,  on  account  of  its  extreme 
shyness.  It  has  a  coating  of  soft  fur,  variously  shaded 
from  black  to  silver-gray. 

Australia  is  distinguished  by  an  extreme  paucity 
of  animal  life  (in  so  far  as  land  animals  are  con- 
cerned), in  even  a  higher  degree  than  by  the  limited 
number  of  its  native  species.  This  is  readily  ex- 
plained by  the  generally  arid  character  of  its  in- 
terior, the  scantiness  of  the  native  vegetation,  and  the 
consequent  difficulty  of  rinding  food.  The  traveler 
may  frequently  pass  over  many  hundred  miles  of 
country  without  meeting  with  a  single  quadruped, 
and  almost  without  finding  the  traces  of  a  single 
land  animal.  Its  characteristics  in  the  latter  regard 
are  undergoing,  however,  a  rapid  change:  the  horse 
and  the  ox,  introduced  by  the  European  settlers,  have 
in  some  cases  reverted  to  a  state  of  nature,  and  a  herd 
of  wild  cattle  is  now  not  infrequently  met  with  be- 
yond the  ordinary  limits  of  the  settlers'  range. 

The  ornithology  of  Australia  is  richer  and  more 
varied  than  other  branches  of  its  animal  life.  Its 
chief  distinction  consists  in  the  vast  proportion  of 
suctorial  birds — that  is,  such  birds  as  derive  their 
principal  support  from  sucking  the  nectar  of  flowers. 
This  peculiar  organization,  restricted  in  Africa, 
India,  and  America  to  the  smallest  birds  in  creation, 
is  here  developed  very  generally,  and  belongs  to  spe- 
cies that  are  as  large  as  an  English  thrush.  The 
melliphagids,  or  honey-suckers,  take  the  place  of  the 


1560  THE  STORY  OF  THE   UNIVERSE 

humming-birds  of  the  New  World:  like  all  the 
family  to  which  they  belong,  they  have  the  tongue 
terminating  in  a  brush-like  bundle  of  very  slender 
filaments,  with  which  they  suck  the  nectar  of  flowers. 

Among  the  native  Australian  birds  are  a  vast  num- 
ber of  the  parrot  tribe,  comprehending  paroquets, 
cockatoos,  and  others,  many  of  them  distinguished 
by  the  most  beautiful  plumage.  Of  birds  of  prey, 
eagles,  falcons,  and  hawks  are  numerous,  as  well  as 
several  owls.  The  largest  among  the  feathered  tribes 
of  Australia  is  the  emu,  or  cassowary — a  bird  of  the 
ostrich  kind,  though  of  rather  inferior  size  to  the 
African  ostrich.  It  is  found  chiefly  in  the  southern 
portions  of  the  continent,  but  is  yearly  becoming 
scarcer  under  the  advance  of  the  settlers.* 

The  scattered  islands  of  the  Pacific  which,  under 
the  name  of  Polynesia,  constitute,  in  modern  geogra- 
phy, one  of  the  divisions  of  the  globe,  can  hardly 
be  regarded  as  a  distinct  zoological  region,  so  ob- 
viously has  their  animal  life  been  derived  from  other 
lands.  When  first  visited  by  European  navigators, 
little  more  than  a  century  since,  the  largest  quad- 
ruped found  in  the  Polynesian  groups  was  the  hog, 
which  had  probably  accompanied  the  tribes  of  man- 
kind by  whom  they  were  peopled.  The  only  other 
land  animals  were  the  dog,  mouse,  and  lizard,  with 

*  The  emu  and  cassowary,  though  in  common  language  re- 
ferred to  as  identical,  are  specifically  distinct.  Of  the  casso- 
wary, properly  so  called,  three  distinct  species  are  now  known 
— one  of  them  an  inhabitant  of  the  Australian  mainland,  in  the 
neighborhood  of  Cape  York,  a  second  native  to  New  Guinea, 
and  a  third  inhabiting  the  island  of  New  Britain. 


CETACEA  1561 

a  few  rats.  There  were  but  few  reptiles,  or  insects ; 
fleas,  scorpions,  cockroaches,  and  other  vermin  have 
since  been  introduced. 

The  native  fauna  of  New  Zealand  is  hardly  less 
scanty  than  that  of  the  smaller  groups  of  the  Pacific. 
The  largest  animal  found  there  by  the  first  European 
settlers  was  the  pig,  which  is  probably  not  indigenous, 
though  it  has  reverted  to  a  state  of  nature.  Dogs  are 
the  only  beasts  of  prey:  a  few  rats  and  mice  complete 
the  list  of  its  Mammalia.  There  are  no  marsupials, 
though  New  Zealand  is  nearer  by  many  thousand 
miles  to  Australia  than  to  any  of  the  other  continents. 
The  feathered  tribes  are  equally  few  in  number,  but 
they  include  at  least  one  species — now  fast  approach- 
ing extinction — the  apteryx  (wingless  bird),  which 
has  no  representative  elsewhere.  The  moa,  a  bird 
of  the  ostrich  kind,  appears  to  have  become  extinct 
within  the  Nineteenth  Century. 

CETACEA.— PETER  MARK  ROGET 

REMARKABLE  exemplifications  of  the  law  of 
uniformity  of  organic  structure  are  furnished 
by  the  family  of  the  Cetacea,  which  includes  the 
whale,  the  cachalot,  the  dolphin,  and  the  porpoise, 
and  exhibits  the  most  elementary  forms  of  the  type  of 
the  Mammalia,  of  which  they  represent  the  early  or 
rudimental  stage  of  development.  Here,  as  before, 
we  have  to  seek  these  first  elements  among  the  in- 
habitants of  the  water:  for  whenever,  in  our  progress 
through  the  animal  kingdom,  we  enter  upon  a  new 
division,  aquatic  tribes  are  always  found  to  compose 


1562  THE  STORY  OF  THE  UNIVERSE 

the  lowest  links  of  the  ascending  chain.  Here,  also,  we 
observe  organic  development  proceeding  with  more 
rapidity,  and  raising  structures  of  greater  dimensions 
in  aquatic  than  in  terrestrial  animals.  The  order 
Cetacea  comprises  by  far  the  largest  animals  which 
inhabit  the  globe.  Whatever  may  have  been  the 
magnitude  of  those  huge  monsters  which  once  moved 
in  the  bosom  of  the  primeval  ocean,  or  stalked  with 
gigantic  strides  across  antediluvian  plains,  and 
whose  scattered  remains  bear  fearful  testimony  of  the 
convulsions  of  a  former  world,  certain  it  is  that,  at 
the  present  day,  the  whales  of  the  northern  seas  are 
the  most  colossal  of  the  living  animal  structures  ex- 
isting on  the  surface  of  this  planet. 

A  cursory  survey  of  the  organization  of  the  tribes 
belonging  to  this  semi-amphibious  family  will  Im- 
press us  with  the  resemblance  they  bear  to  fishes ; 
for  they  present  the  same  oval  outline  of  the  body, 
the  same  compact  form  of  the  trunk,  which  is  united 
with  the  head  without  an  intervening  neck;  the  same 
fin-like  shape  of  the  external  instruments  of  motion 
and  the  same  enormous  expansion  and  prolongation 
of  the  tail,  which  is  here  also,  as  in  fishes,  the  chief 
agent  in  progression.  With  all  this  agreement  in 
external  characters,  their  internal  economy  is  con- 
ducted upon  a  totally  different  plan;  for  although 
constantly  inhabiting  the  ocean,  their  vital  organs 
are  so  constructed  as  to  admit  of  their  breathing  only 
the  air  of  the  atmosphere,  and  the  consequences 
which  flow  from  this  difference  are  of  great  im- 
portance. The  necessity  of  aerial  respiration  com- 
pels them  to  rise,  at  short  intervals,  to  the  surface 


CETACEA  1563 

of  the  water;  and  this  air,  with  which  they  fill  their 
lungs  in  respiration,  gives  their  bodies  the  buoyant 
force  that  is  required  to  facilitate  their  ascent,  and 
supersedes  the  necessity  of  a  swimming  bladder,  an 
organ  which  is  so  useful  to  the  fish. 

With  the  intent  of  diminishing  still  further  their 
specific  gravity,  Nature  has  provided  that  a  large 
quantity  of  oily  fluid  shall  be  collected  under  the 
skin,  a  provision  which  answers,  also,  the  purpose  of 
preserving  the  vital  warmth  of  the  body.  A  great 
accumulation  of  this  lighter  substance  is  formed  on 
the  upper  part  of  the  head,  apparently  with  a  view 
to  facilitate  the  elevation  to  the  surface  of  the  blow- 
ing hole,  or  orifice  of  the  nostrils,  which  is  placed 
there.* 

Another  peculiarity  of  conformation,  in  which  the 
Cetacea  differ  from  fishes,  and  which  has  also  an 
obvious  relation  to  their  peculiar  mode  of  breathing, 
is  in  the  form  of  the  tail,  which,  instead  of  being 
compressed  laterally  and  inflected  from  side  to  side, 
as  in  fishes,  is  flattened  horizontally,  and  strikes  the 
water  in  a  vertical  direction,  thereby  giving  the  body 
a  powerful  impulsion,  either  toward  the  surface, 
when  the  animal  is  constrained  to  rise,  or  downward, 
when,  by  diving,  it  hastens  to  escape  from  danger. 

All  the  essential  and  permanent  parts  of  the  skele- 
ton of  vertebrated  animals,  that  is,  the  spinal  column, 
and  its  immediate  dependencies,  the  skull,  the  caudal 


*  The  substance  called  Spermaceti  is  lodged  in  cells,  formed 
of  a  cartilaginous  substance,  situated  on  the  upper  part  of  the 
head  of  the  Cachalot. 


1564  THE  STORY  OF  THE   UNIVERSE 

prolongation,  and  the  ribs  are  found  in  that  of  the 
Cetacea.  The  thorax  is  carried  very  much  forward, 
especially  in  the  whale,  and  the  neck  is  so  short  as  to 
be  scarcely  recognizable:  for  the  object  of  the  con- 
formation is  here,  as  in  that  of  the  fish,  to  allow  free 
scope  for  the  movements  of  the  tail  and  ample  space 
for  the  lodgment  of  its  muscles.  For  the  purpose 
of  giving  greater  power  and  more  extensive  attach- 
ment to  these  muscles,  the  transverse  processes  of  the 
dorsal  and  lumbar  vertebrae  are  expanded  both  in 
length  and  breadth,  and,  being  situated  horizontally, 
offer  no  impediment  to  the  vertical  flexure  of  the 
spine.  For  the  same  reason  the  ribs  are  continued 
in  a  line  with  the  transverse  processes,  and  articulated 
with  their  extremities,  thus  giving  still  further 
breadth  to  the  trunk. 

As  there  is  a  total  absence  of  hinder  extremities, 
so  there  is  no  enlargement  of  any  of  the  vertebrae 
corresponding  to  a  sacrum,  and  the  caudal  vertebrae 
are  uninterrupted  continuations  of  those  of  the  trunk. 
They  develop,  however,  parts  which  are  met  with 
only  among  fishes  and  reptiles,  namely,  arches 
composed  of  inferior  leaves  and  spinous  processes, 
inclosing  and  giving  protection  to  a  large  artery. 
Although  the  bones  of  the  legs  do  not  exist,  yet  there 
are  found,  in  the  hinder  and  lower  part  of  the  trunk, 
concealed  in  the  flesh,  and  quite  detached  from  the 
spine,  two  small  bones,  apparently  corresponding  to 
pelvic  bones,  for  the  presence  of  which  no  more  prob- 
able reason  can  be  assigned  than  the  tendency  to  pre- 
serve an  analogy  with  the  more  developed  structures 
of  the  same  type. 


HUNTING  AND   FISHING  OP  ANIMALS  1565 

A  similar  adherence  to  the  law  of  uniformity  in 
the  plan  of  construction  of  all  the  animals  belonging 
to  the  same  class,  is  strikingly  shown  in  the  conforma- 
tion of  the  bones  of  the  anterior  extremities  of  the 
Cetacea;  for,  although  they  present,  externally,  no 
resemblance  to  the  leg  and  foot  of  a  quadruped, 
being  fashioned  into  fin-like  members,  with  a  flat, 
oval  surface  for  striking  the  water,  yet,  when  the 
bones  are  stripped  of  the  thick  integument  which 
covers  them  and  conceals  their  real  form,  we  find 
them  exhibiting  the  same  divisions  into  carpal  and 
metacarpal  bones,  and  phalanges  of  fingers,  as  exist 
in  the  most  highly  developed  organization,  not 
merely  of  a  quadruped,  but  also  of  a  monkey,  and 
even  of  man. 

HUNTING  AND  FISHING  OF 

ANIMALS.--FREDfiRic    HOUSSAY 

THE  search  for  food  has  necessarily  been  the 
cause  of  the  earliest  industries  among  animals. 
It  is  easy  to  understand  that  the  herbivora  need  lit- 
tle ingenuity  in  seeking  nourishment;  they  are  so 
superior  to  their  prey  that  they  can  obtain  it  and  feed 
on  it  by  the  sole  fact  of  an  organization  adapted  to 
its  assimilation.  They  are,  it  is  true,  at  the  mercy  of 
circumstances  over  which  they  have  no  control,  and 
which  lead  to  famine.  The  carnivora  also  may  have 
to  suffer  from  the  absence  of  prey,  but  even  in  the 
most  favorable  seasons,  and  in  the  regions  where  the 
animals  on  which  they  live  abound,  it  is  necessary  for 
them  to  develop  a  special  activity  to  obtain  posses- 


1566  THE   STORY   OF   THE    UNIVERSE 

sion  of  beings  who  are  suspicious,  prompt  in  flight, 
and  as  fleet  as  themselves.  Thus  it  is  among  these 
that  we  expect  to  find  the  art  of  hunting  most 
cultivated;  especially  if  we  put  aside  the  more 
grossly  carnivorous  of  them,  whose  whole  organiza- 
tion is  adapted  for  rapid  and  effective  results. 

The  most  rudimentary  method  of  hunting  in  am- 
bush is  simply  to  take  advantage  of  some  favorable 
external  circumstance  to  obtain  concealment,  and 
then  to  await  the  approach  of  the  prey.  Some  ani- 
mals place  themselves  behind  a  tuft  of  grass,  others 
thrust  themselves  into  a  thicket,  or  hang  on  to  the 
branch  of  a  tree  in  order  to  fall  suddenly  on  the  vic- 
tim who  innocently  approaches  the  perfidious  am- 
bush. The  crocodile,  as  described  by  Sir  Samuel 
Baker,  conceals  himself  by  his  skill  in  plunging 
noiselessly.  On  the  bank  a  group  of  birds  have 
alighted.  They  search  the  mud  for  insects  or  worms, 
.or  simply  approach  the  stream  to  drink  or  bathe.  In 
spite  of  his  great  size  and  robust  appetite  the  croco- 
dile does  not  disdain  this  slight  dish;  but  the  least 
noise,  the  least  wrinkle  on  the  surface  of  the  water 
would  cause  the  future  repast  to  vanish.  The 
reptile  plunges,  the  birds  continue  without  sus- 
picion to  come  and  go.  Suddenly  there  emerges 
before  them  the  huge  open  jaw  armed  with  formida- 
ble teeth.  In  the  moment  of  stupor  and  immobility 
which  this  unforeseen  apparition  produces  a  few  im- 
prudent birds  have  disappeared. within  the  reptile's 
mouth,  while  the  others  fly  away.  In  the  same  sly 
and  brutal  manner  he  snaps  up  dogs,  horses,  oxen, 
and  even  men  who  come  to  the  river  to  drink. 


HUNTING  AND   FISHING  OF  ANIMALS  1567 

One  of  the  most  dangerous  ambushes  which  can  be 
met  on  the  road  by  animals  who  resort  to  a  spring  is 
that  prepared  by  the  python.  This  gigantic  snake 
hangs  by  his  tail  to  the  branch  of  a  tree  and  lets 
himself  droop  down  like  a  long  creeper.  The  victim 
who  comes  within  his  reach  is  seized,  enrolled, 
pounded  in  the  knots  which  the  snake  forms  around 
him.  It  is  not  necessary  to  multiply  examples  of 
this  simple  and  widespread  method  of  hunting. 

Not  content  with  utilizing  the  natural  arrange- 
ments they  meet  with,  there  are  animals  which  con- 
struct genuine  ambushes,  acting  thus  like  man,  who 
builds  in  the  middle  or  on  the  edge  of  ponds,  cabins 
in  which  to  await  wild  ducks,  or  who  digs  in  the 
path  of  a  lion  a  hole  covered  with  trunks  of  trees,  at 
the  bottom  of  which  he  may  kill  the  beast  without 
danger.  Certain  insects  practice  this  method  of 
hunting.  The  fox,  for  instance,  so  skilful  a  hunter 
in  many  respects,  constructs  an  ambush  when  hunt- 
ing hares. 

The  larva  of  the  tiger  beetle  (Cicindela  campes- 
tris)  constructs  a  hole  about  the  size  of  a  feather 
quill,  disposed  vertically,  and  of  a  depth,  enormous 
for  its  size,  of  forty  centimetres.  It  maintains  itself 
in  this  tube  by  arching  its  supple  body  along  the  walls 
at  a  height  sufficient  for  the  top  of  its  head  to  be 
level  with  the  surface  of  trie  soil,  and  to  close  the 
opening  of  the  hole.  A  little  insect — an  ant,  a  young 
beetle,  or  something  similar — passes.  As  soon  as  it 
begins  to  walk  on  the  head  of  the  larva,  the  latter 
letting  go  its  hold  of  the  wall  allows  itself  to  fall 
to  the  bottom  of  the  trap,  dragging  its  victim  with  it. 


M 


VOL.  IV. 


1568  THE   STORY  OF  THE   UNIVERSE 

In  this  narrow  prison  it  is  easily  able  to  obtain  the 
mastery  over  its  prey,  and  to  suck  out  the  liquid  parts, 

The  Staphilinus  Caesareus  acts  with  still  greater 
shrewdness;  not  only  is  his  pit  more  perfect,  but  he 
takes  care  to  remove  all  traces  of  preceding  repasts 
which  might  render  the  place  obviously  one  of 
carnage.  He  chooses  a  stone,  beneath  which  he 
hollows  a  cylindro-conical  hole  with  extremely 
smooth  walls.  This  hole  is  not  to  serve  as  a  trap, 
that  is  to  say  that  the  proprietor  has  no  intention  of 
causing  any  pedestrian  to  roll  to  the  bottom.  It  is 
simply  a  place  of  concealment  in  which  he  awaits 
the  propitious  moment.  No  creature  is  more  patient 
than  this  insect,  and  no  delay  discourages  him.  As 
soon  as  some  small  animal  approaches  his  hiding- 
place  he  throws  himself  on  it  impetuously,  kills 
it,  and  devours  it.  Near  his  ditch  he  has  hollowed  a 
second  of  a  much  coarser  character,  the  walls  of 
which  have  not  been  smoothed  with  the  same  care. 
One  here  sees  elytra  and  claws  piled  up;  they  are  the 
hard  and  horny  parts  which  he  has  not  been  able 
to  eat.  The  heap  in  this  ditch  is  not  then  an  alimen- 
tary store.  It  is  the  oubliette  in  which  the  Staphili- 
nus buries  the  remains  of  his  victims.  If  he  allowed 
them  to  accumulate  around  his  hole  all  pedestrians 
would  come  to  fear  this  spot  and  to  avoid  it.  It 
would  be  like  the  dwelling  of  a  polypus,  which  is 
marked  by  the  numerous  carapaces  of  crabs  and  shells 
which  strew  the  neighborhood. 

The  ambuscade  of  the  ant-lion  is  classic;  it  does 
not  differ  greatly  from  the  others.  He  excavates  a 
conical  pitfall,  in  which  he  conceals  himself,  and 


HUNTING  AND   FISHING  OF  ANIMALS  1569 

seizes  the  unfortunate  ants  and  other  insects  whom 
ill-chance  causes  to  roll  into  it. 

A  variety  of  ambush  which  brings  the  baited 
ambush  method  of  hunting  to  considerable  perfec- 
tion lies  in  inciting  the  prey  to  approach  the  hiding- 
place  instead  of  trusting  to  chance  to  bring  it  there. 
In  such  circumstances  man  places  some  allurement 
in  the  neighborhood — that  is  to  say,  one  of  the  foods 
preferred  by  the  desired  victim,  or  at  least  some  ob- 
ject which  recalls  the  form  of  that  food,  as,  for  ex- 
ample, an  artificial  fly  to  obtain  possession  of  certain 
fishes. 

It  is  curious  to  find  that  fish  themselves  utilize  this 
system;  it  is  the  method  adopted  by  the  angler 
and  the  Uranoscopus.  The  Uranoscopus  scaber  lives 
in  the  Mediterranean.  At  the  end  of  his  lower  jaw 
there  is  developed  a  mobile  and  supple  filament 
which  he  is  able  to  use  with  the  greatest  dexterity. 
Concealed  in  the  mud,  without  moving  and  only 
allowing  the  end  of  his  head  to  emerge,  he  agitates 
and  vibrates  his  filament.  The  little  fishes  who  prowl 
in  the  neighborhood,  delighted  with  the  sight  of  this 
apparent  worm,  regarding  it  as  a  destined  prey, 
throw  themselves  on  to  it,  but  before  they  are  able  to 
bite  and  recognize  their  error  they  have  disappeared 
in  the  mouth  of  the  proprietor  of  the  bait. 

The  angler  (Lophius  piscatorius)  has  not  usurped 
his  rather  paradoxical  name.  He  retires  to  the  midst 
of  the  sea-weed  and  algae.  On  his  body  and  all 
round  his  head  he  bears  fringed  appendages  which, 
by  their  resemblance  to  the  leaves  of  marine  plants, 
aid  the  animal  to  conceal  himself.  The  color  of 


1570  THE   STORY   OF  THE   UNIVERSE 

• 

his  body  also  does  not  contrast  with  neighboring 
objects.  From  his  head  arise  three  movable  fila- 
ments formed  by  three  spines  detached  from  the  up- 
per fin.  He  makes  use  of  the  anterior  one,  which 
is  the  longest  and  most  supple.  Working  in  the 
same  way  as  the  Uranoscopus,  the  angler  agitates  his 
three  filaments,  giving  them  as  much  as  possible  the 
appearance  of  worms,  and  thus  attracting  the  little 
fish  on  which  he  feeds. 

All  these  methods  of  hunting  or  of  fishing  by  sur- 
prises are  for  the  most  part  practiced  by  the  less  agile 
species  which  can  not  obtain  their  prey  by  superior 
fleetness.  Midway  between  these  two  methods  may 
be  placed  that  which  consists  in  surprising  game 
when  some  circumstance  has  rendered  it  motionless. 
Sometimes  it  is  sleep  which  places  it  at  the  mercy  of 
the  hunter,  whose  art  in  this  case  consists  in  seeking 
out  its  dwelling.  Sometimes  he  profits  by  the  youth 
of  the  victim,  like  all  bird-nesters,  whose  aim  is  to 
eat  the  eggs  or  to  devour  the  young  while  still  in<- 
capable  of  flying.  The  animals  who  eat  birds'  eggs 
are  numerous  both  among  mammals  and  reptiles,  as 
well  as  among  birds  themselves. 

The  alligator  of  Florida  and  of  Louisiana  delights 
in  this  chase.  He  seeks  in  particular  the  great  boat- 
tail  (Quiscalus  major)  which  nests  in  the  reeds  at 
the  edge  of  marshes  and  ponds.  When  the  young 
have  come  out  and  are  expecting  from  their  parents 
the  food  which  the  chances  of  the  hunt  may  delay, 
they  do  not  cease  chirping  and  calling  by  their  cries. 
But  the  parents  are  not  alone  in  hearing  these  ap- 
peals. They  may  also  strike  the  ears  of  the  alligator, 


HUNTING  AND   FISHING   OF  ANIMALS  1571 

who  furtively  approaches  the  imprudent  singers. 
With  a  sudden  stroke  of  his  tail  he  strikes  the  reeds 
and  throws  into  the  water  one  or  more  of  the  hungry 
young  ones,  who  are  then  at  his  mercy. 

The  animals  who  feed  on  species  living  in  societies 
either  seize  on  their  prey  when  isolated  or  when  all 
the  members  of  the  colony  are  united  in  their  city.  A 
search  for  the  nest  is  necessary  in  the  case  of  creatures 
who  are  very  small  in  comparison  with  the  hunter,  as 
in  the  case  of  ants  and  the  ant-eater.  But  the  ant- 
eater  possesses  a  very  long  and  sticky  tongue,  which 
renders  the  capture  of  these  insects  extremely  easy; 
when  he  finds  a  frequented  passage  it  is  enough  to 
stretch  out  his  tongue;  all  the  ants  come  of  their  own 
accord  and  place  themselves  on  it,  and  when  it  is 
sufficiently  charged  he  withdraws  it  and  devours 
them.  The  African  Orycteropus,  who  is  also  a  great 
eater  of  ants  and  especially  of  termites,  is  equally 
aided  by  a  very  developed  tongue;  but  he  has  less 
patience  than  the  ant-eater,  and  he  adds  to  this  re- 
source other  proceedings  which  render  the  hunt  more 
fruitful  and  enable  him  to  obtain  a  very  large  num- 
ber of  insects  at  one  time.  Thanks  to  his  keenness  of 
scent  he  soon  discovers  an  ant-path  bearing  the  spe- 
cial and  characteristic  odor  which  these  Hymenop- 
tera  leave  behind  them,  and  he  follows  the  track 
which  leads  to  their  nest.  On  arriving  there,  with- 
out troubling  himself  about  the  scattered  insects  that 
prowl  in  the  neighborhood,  he  sets  himself  to  pene- 
trate into  the  midst  of  the  dwelling,  and  with  his 
strong  claws  hollows  out  a  passage  which  enables  him 
to  gain  access.  On  the  way  he  pierces  walls,  breaks 


1572  THE   STORY   OF  THE   UNIVERSE 

down  floors,  gathering  here  and  there  some  fugitives, 
and  arrives  at  last  at  the  centre,  in  which  millions  of 
animals  swarm.  He  then  swallows  them  in  large 
mouthfuls  and  retires,  leaving  behind  him  a  desert 
and  a  ruin  in  the  spot  before  occupied  by  a  veritable 
palace,  full  of  prodigious  activity. 

The  colonies  are  not  only  exposed  to  the  devasta- 
tions of  those  who  feed  on  their  members;  they  have 
other  enemies  in  the  animals  who  covet  their  stores 
of  food.  The  most  inveterate  robber  of  bees  is  the 
nocturnal  Death's  Head  moth.  When  he  has  suc- 
ceeded in  penetrating  the  hive  the  stings  of  the  pro- 
prietors who  throw  themselves  on  him  do  not  trouble 
him,  thanks  to  his  thick  fleece  of  long  hairs  which  the 
sting  can  not  penetrate;  he  makes  his  way  to  the  cells, 
rips  them  open,  gorges  himself  with  honey,  and 
causes  such  havoc  that  in  Switzerland,  in  certain 
years  when  these  butterflies  were  abundant,  numbers 
of  hives  have  been  found  absolutely  empty.  Many 
other  marauders  and  of  larger  size,  such  as  the  bear, 
also  spread  terror  among  these  laborious  insects  and 
empty  their  barns.  No  animal  is  more  crafty  than 
the  raven,  and  the  fabulist  who  wished  to  make  him 
a  dupe  was  obliged  to  oppose  to  him  the  very  cun- 
ning fox  in  order  to  render  the  tale  fairly  life-like. 
A  great  number  of  stories  are  told  concerning  the 
raven's  cleverness,  and  many  of  them  are  undoubted- 
edly  true.  There  is  no  bolder  robber  of  nests.  He 
swallows  the  eggs  and  eats  the  little  ones  of  the  spe- 
cies who  can  not  defend  themselves  against  him;  he 
even  seeks  the  eggs  of  sea-gulls  on  the  coast;  but  in 
this  case  he  .must  use  cunning,  for  if  he  is  discovered 


HUNTING  AND   FISHING   OF  ANIMALS  1573 

it  means  a  serious  battle.  On  the  coast  also  the  raven 
seeks  to  obtain  possession  of  the  hermit-crab.  This 
crustacean  dwells  in  the  empty  shells  of  gasteropods. 
At  the  least  alarm  he  retires  within  this  shell  and 
becomes  invisible,  but  the  bird  advances  with  so  much 
precaution  that  he  is  often  able  to  seize  the  crab  be- 
fore he  has  time  to  hide  himself.  If  the  raven  fails 
he  turns  the  shell  over  and  over  until  the  impatient 
crustacean  allows  a  claw  to  emerge;  he  is  then  seized 
and  immediately  devoured. 

If  there  is  a  question  of  hunting  larger  game  like  a 
hare,  the  raven  prefers  to  take  an  ally.  They  start 
him  at  his  burrow  and  pursue  him  flying.  In  spite  of 
his  proverbial  rapidity  the  hare  is  scarcely  able  to 
flee  more  than  two  hundred  yards.  He  succumbs 
beneath  vigorous  blows  on  his  skull  from  the  beaks 
of  his  assailants.  During  winter,  in  the  high  regions 
of  the  Alps,  when  the  soil  is  covered  with  snow,  this 
chase  is  particularly  fruitful  for  ravens.  The  story 
is  told  of  that  unfortunate  hare  who  had  hollowed 
out  in  the  snow  a  burrow  with  two  entrances.  Two 
of  these  birds  having  recognized  his  presence,  one 
entered  one  hole  in  order  to  dislodge  the  hare,  the 
other  awaited  him  at  the  other  opening  to  batter  his 
head  with  blows  from  his  beak  and  kill  him  before 
he  had  time  to  gain  presence  of  mind. 

Rooks  sometimes  hunt  in  burrows  by  ingeniously 
concerted  operations.  Mr.  Bernard  has  described 
the  interesting  way  in  which  the  rook  hunts  voles  or 
field-mice  in  Thuringia.  His  curiosity  was  excited 
by  the  way  in  which  numerous  rooks  stood  about  a 
field  cawing  loudly.  In  a  few  days  this  was  ex- 


1574  THE   STORY   OF  THE   UNIVERSE 

plained:  the  field  was  covered  with  rooks;  the  origi- 
nal assemblage  had  been  calling  together  a  mouse- 
hunt,  which  could  only  be  successfully  carried  out 
by  a  large  number  of  birds  acting  in  conjunction. 
By  diligently  probing  the  ground  and  blocking  up 
the  network  of  runs,  the  voles,  one  or  more  at  a  time, 
were  gradually  driven  into  a  corner.  The  hunt  was 
very  successful,  and  no  more  voles  were  seen  in  that 
field  during  the  winter. 

Other  animals  are  not  easily  discouraged  by  the 
swiftness  of  their  prey;  they  count  on  their  own  re- 
sistance in  order  to  tire  the  game;  some  of  them  also 
manage  their  pursuit  in  the  most  intelligent  way,  so 
as  to  preserve  their  own  strength  while  the  tracked 
animal's  strength  goes  on  diminishing  until  exhaus- 
tion and  fatigue  place  him  at  their  mercy. 

Mammals  especially,  such  as  dogs,  wolves,  and 
foxes,  exercise  this  kind  of  chase;  it  is,  exactly,  the 
coursing  which  man  has  merely  had  to  direct  for  his 
own  benefit.  Wild  dogs  pursue  their  prey  united  in 
immense  packs.  They  excite  each  other  by  barking 
while  they  frighten  the  game  and  half  paralyze  his 
efforts.  No  animal  is  agile  and  strong  enough  to  be 
sure  of  escaping.  They  surround  him  and  cut  off  his 
retreat  in  a  most  skilful  manner;  gazelles  and  ante- 
lopes, in  spite  of  their  extreme  nimbleness  and  speed, 
are  caught  at  last;  boars  are  rapidly  driven  into  a 
corner;  their  vigorous  defence  may  cost  the  life  of 
some  of  the  assailants,  but  they  nevertheless  become 
the  prey  of  the  band  who  rush  on  to  the  quarry.  In 
Asia  wild  dogs  do  not  fear  even  to  attack  the  tiger. 

Wolves  hunt  also  in  considerable  bands.    Their  au- 


HUNTING  AND   FISHING  OF  ANIMALS  1575 

dacity,  especially  when  pressed  by  hunger  in  the  bad 
season,  is  well  known.  In  time  of  war  they  follow 
armies,  to  attack  stragglers  and  to  devour  the  dead. 
In  Siberia  they  pursue  sledges  on  the  snow  with  ter- 
rible perseverance,  and  the  pack  is  not  delayed  by 
the  massacre  of  those  who  are  shot.  A  few  stop  to 
devour  at  once  their  fallen  comrades,  while  the  others 
continue  the  pursuit 

Besides  these  brutal  chases  wolves  seem  able  to  ex- 
ercise a  genuine  feint.  Sometimes  it  is  a  couple  who 
hunt  in  concert.  If  they  meet  a  flock,  as  they  are 
well  aware  that  the  dog  will  bravely  defend  the  ani- 
mals intrusted  to  him,  that  he  is  vigilant,  and  that  his 
keen  scent  will  bring  him  on  them  much  sooner  than 
the  shepherd,  it  is  with  him  that  they  first  occupy 
themselves.  The  two  wolves  approach  secretly;  then 
suddenly  one  of  them  unmasks  and  attracts  the  at- 
tention of  the  dog,  who  rushes  after  him  with  such 
ardor  that  he  fails  to  perceive  that  in  the  meantime 
the  second  thief  has  seized  the  sheep  and  dragged  it 
into  the  wood.  The  dog  finally  renounces  his  pursuit 
of  the  fugitive  and  returns  to  his  flock.  Then  the 
two  confederates  join  each  other  and  share  the  prey. 
In  other  circumstances  it  is  a  wolf  who  hunts  with 
his  female.  When  they  wish  to  obtain  possession  of 
a  deer,  whose  robust  flight  may  last  a  long  time,  one 
of  the  couple,  the  male,  for  example,  pursues  him  ' 
and  directs  his  chase  in  such  a  way  that  the  game  must 
pass  by  a  place  where  the  female  wolf  is  concealed. 
She  then  takes  up  the  chase  while  the  male  reposes. 
It  is  an  organized  system  of  relays.  The  strength  of 
the  deer  becomes  necessarily  exhausted;  he  can  not 


1576  THE  STORY  OF   THE   UNIVERSE 

resist  the  animation  shown  by  his  active  foe,  and  is 
seized  and  killed.  Then  the  other  wolf  calmly  ap- 
proaches the  place  of  the  feast  to  share  his  part  of 
the  booty. 

The   fox   also  successfully  uses   this   method  of 
coursing  with  relays. 

It  has  often  been  repeated  that  man  is  the  only  crea- 
ture sufficiently  intelligent  to  utilize  as  weapons  ex- 
terior objects  like  a  stone  or  a  brick;  in  a  much  greater 
degree,  therefore,  it  was  said,  was  he  the  only  creature 
capable  of  striking  from  afar  with  a  projectile. 
Nevertheless  creatures  so  inferior  as  fish  exhibit  ex- 
treme skill  in  the  art  of  reaching  their  prey  at  a  dis- 
tance. Several  act  in  this  way.  There  is  first  the 
Toxotes  jaculator,  who  lives  in  the  rivers  of  India. 
His  principal  food  is  formed  by  the  insects  who 
wander  over  the  leaves  of  aquatic  plants.  To  wait 
until  they  fell  into  the  water  would  naturally  result 
in  but  meagre  fare.  To  leap  at  them  with  one  bound 
is  difficult,  not  to  mention  that  the  noise  would  cause 
them  to  flee.  The  Toxotes  knows  a  better  trick  than 
that.  He  draws  in  some  drops  of  water,  and,  con- 
tracting his  mouth,  projects  them  with  so  much  force 
and  certainty  that  they  rarely  fail  to  reach  the 
chosen  aim,  and  to  bring  into  the  water  all  the  in- 
sects he  desires.  Other  animals  also  squirt  various 
liquids,  sometimes  in  attack,  but  more  especially  in 
defence.  The  Cephalopods,  for  example,  emit  their 
ink,  which  darkens  the  water  and  allows  them  to 
flee.  Certain  insects  exude  bitter  or  foetid  liquids; 
but  in  all  these  cases,  and  in  others  that  are  similar, 
the  animal  finds  in  his  own  organism  a  secretion 


THE   DEATH-FEIGNING   INSTINCT  1577 

which  happens  to  be  more  or  less  useful  to  his  con- 
servation. The  method  of  the  Toxotes  is  different. 
It  is  a  foreign  body  which  he  takes  up,  and  it  is  an 
intended  victim  at  which  he  takes  aim  and  which 
he  strikes;  his  movements  are  admirably  co-ordinated 
to  obtain  a  precise  effect 

Another  fish,  the  Chelinous  of  Java,  also  acts  in 
this  manner.  He  generally  lives  in  estuaries.  It  is, 
therefore,  a  brackish  water  which  he  takes  up  and 
projects  by  closing  His  gills  an'd  contracting  his 
mouth;  he  can  thus  strike  a  fly  at  a  distance  of 
several  feet.  Usually  he  aims  sufficiently  well  to 
strike  it  at  the  first  blow,  but  sometimes  he  fails. 
Then  he  begins  again  until  he  has  succeeded,  wfiich 
shows  that  his  movements  are  not  those  of  a  machine. 
He  knows  what  he  is  doing,  what  effect  ought  to  be 
produced,  and  whether  this  desired  result  has  hap- 
pened, and  he  perseveres  until  the  insect  has  fallen. 
These  facts  are  unquestioned;  the  Chinese  preserve 
these  curious  fish  in  jars,  and  amuse  themselves  by 
making  them  carry  on  this  little  exercise.  Many 
observers  have  witnessed  and  described  it. 

THE     DEATH  -  FEIGNING 
INSTINCT.—  W.  H.  HUDSON 

MOST  people  are  familiar  with  the  phenome- 
non of  "death-feigning,"  commonly  seen  in 
coleopterous  insects  and  in  many  spiders.  This 
highly  curious  instinct  is  also  possessed  by  some  ver- 
tebrates. In  insects,  it  is  probably  due  to  temporary 
paralysis  occasioned  by  sudden  concussion,  for  when 


1578  THE  STORY   OF  THE   UNIVERSE 

beetles  alight  abruptly,  though  voluntarily,  they  as- 
sume that  appearance  of  death  which  lasts  for  a  few 
moments.  Some  species,  indeed,  are  so  highly  sen- 
sitive that  the  slightest  touch,  or  even  a  sudden  men- 
ace, will  instantly  throw  them  into  this  motionless, 
death-simulating  condition.  Curiously  enough,  the 
same  causes  which  produce  this  trance  in  slow-mov- 
ing species,  like  those  of  Scarabaeus,  for  example, 
have  a  precisely  contrary  effect  on  species  endowed 
with  great  activity.  Rapacious  beetles,  when  dis- 
turbed, scuttle  quickly  out  of  sight,  and  some  water- 
beetles  spin  about  the  surface,  in  circles  or  zigzag 
lines,  so  rapidly  as  to  confuse  the  eye.  The  common 
long-legged  spiders  (Pholcus)  when  approached 
draw  their  feet  together  in  the  middle  of  the  web, 
and  spin  the  body  round  with  such  velocity  as  to  re- 
semble a  whirligig. 

Certain  mammals  and  birds  also  possess  the  death- 
simulating  instinct,  though  it  is  hardly  possible  to 
believe  that  the  action  springs  from  the  same  imme- 
diate cause  in  vertebrates  and  in  insects.  In  the  lat- 
ter, it  appears  to  be  a  purely  physical  instinct,  the 
direct  result  of  an  extraneous  cause,  and  resembling 
the  motions  of  a  plant.  In  mammals  and  birds,  it  is 
evident  that  violent  emotion,  and  not  the  rough 
handling  experienced,  is  the  final  cause  of  the  swoon. 

Passing  over  venomous  snakes,  skunks,  and  a  few 
other  species  in  which  the  presence  of  danger  ex- 
cites only  anger,  fear  has  a  powerful,  and  in  some 
cases  a  disabling,  effect  on  animals;  and  it  is  this 
paralyzing  effect  of  fear  on  which  the  death-feign- 
ing instinct,  found  only  in  a  few  widely  separated 


THE  DEATH-FEIGNING  INSTINCT  1579 

species,  has  probably  been  built  up  by  the  slow  cumu- 
lative process  of  natural  selection. 

I  have  met  with  some  curious  instances  of  the 
paralyzing  effect  of  fear.  I  was  told  by  some  hunters 
in  an  outlying  district  of  the  pampas  of  its  effect  on 
a  jaguar  they  started,  and  which  took  refuge  in  a 
dense  clump  of  dry  reeds.  Though  they  could  see 
it,  it  was  impossible  to  throw  the  lasso  over  its  head, 
and  after  vainly  trying  to  dislodge  it,  they  at  length 
set  fire  to  the  reeds.  Still  it  refused  to  stir,  but  lay 
with  head  erect,  fiercely  glaring  at  them  through  the 
flames.  Finally,  it  disappeared  from  sight  in  the 
black  smoke;  and  when  the  fire  had  burned  itself 
out,  it  was  found,  dead  and  charred,  in  the  same  spot. 

On  the  pampas,  the  Gauchos  frequently  take  the 
black-necked  swan  by  frightening  it.  When  the 
birds  are  feeding  or  resting  on  the  grass,  two  or  three 
men  or  boys  on  horseback  go  quietly  to  leeward  of  the 
flock,  and,  when  opposite  to  it,  suddenly  wheel  and 
charge  it  at  full  speed,  uttering  loud  shouts,  by  which 
the  birds  are  thrown  into  such  terror  that  they  are 
incapable  of  flying,  and  are  quickly  despatched. 

I  have  also  seen  Gaucho  boys  catch  the  silver-bill 
(Lichenops  perspicillata)  by  hurling  a  stick  or  stone 
at  the  bird,  then  rushing  at  it,  when  it  sits  perfectly 
still,  disabled  by  fear,  ancf  allows  itself  to  be  taken. 
I  myself  once  succeeded  in  taking  a  small  bird  of 
another  species  in  the  same  way. 

Among  mammals,  our  common  fox  (Canis  azarae), 
and  one  of  the  opossums  (Didelphys  azarae),  are 
strangely  subject  to  the  death-simulating  swoon.  For 
it  does  indeed  seem  strange  that  animals  so  powerful, 


1580  THE  STORY   OF  THE   UNIVERSE 

fierce  and  able  to  inflict  such  terrible  injury  with 
their  teeth  should  also  possess  this  safeguard,  appar- 
ently more  suited  to  weak  inactive  creatures  that  can 
not  resist  or  escape  from  an  enemy  and  to  animals 
very  low  down  in  the  scale  of  being.  When  a  fox  is 
caught  in  a  trap  or  run  down  by  dogs,  he  fights  sav- 
agely at  first,  but  by  and  by  relaxes  his  efforts,  drops 
on  the  ground  and  apparently  yields  up  the  ghost. 
The  deception  is  so  well  carried  out  that  dogs  are 
constantly  taken  in  by  it,  and  no  one,  not  well  ac- 
quainted with  this  clever  trickery  of  nature,  but 
would  at  once  pronounce  the  creature  dead,  and 
worthy  of  some  praise  for  having  perished  in  so 
brave  a  spirit. 

Now,  when  in  this  condition  of  feigning  death, 
I  am  sure  that  the  animal  does  not  altogether  lose 
consciousness.  It  is  exceedingly  difficult  to  discover 
any  evidence  of  life  in  the  opossum;  but  when  one 
withdraws  a  little  way  from  the  feigning  fox,  and 
watches  him  very  attentively,  a  slight  opening  of  the 
eye  may  be  detected ;  and  finally,  when  left  to  him- 
self, he  does  not  recover  and  start  up  like  an  animal 
that  has  been  stunned,  but  slowly  and  cautiously 
raises  his  head  first,  and  only  gets  up  when  his  foes 
are  at  a  safe  distance.  Yet  I  have  seen  Gauchos,  who 
are  very  cruel  to  animals,  practice  the  most  barbarous 
experiments  on  a  captive  fox  without  being  able  to 
rouse  it  into  exhibiting  any  sign  of  life.  This  has 
greatly  puzzled  me,  since  if  death-feigning  is  simply 
a  cunning  habit,  the  animal  could  not  suffer  itself  to 
be  mutilated  without  wincing.  I  can  only  believe 
that  the  fox,  though  not  insensible,  as  its  behavior 


THE   DEATH-FEIGNING   INSTINCT  1581 

on  being  left  to  itself  seems  to  prove,  yet  has  its  body 
thrown  by  extreme  terror  into  that  benumbed  condi- 
tion which  simulates  death,  and  during  which  it  is 
unable  to  feel  the  tortures  practiced  upon  it. 

The  swoon  sometimes  actually  takes  place  before 
the  animal  has  been  touched,  and  even  when  the  ex- 
citing cause  is  at  a  considerable  distance.  I  was  once 
riding  with  a  Gaucho,  when  we  saw,  on  the  open 
level  ground  before  us,  a  fox,  not  yet  fully  grown, 
standing  still  and  watching  our  approach.  All  at 
once  it  dropped,  and  when  we  came  up  to  the  spot 
it  was  lying  stretched  out,  with  eyes  closed,  and  ap- 
parently dead.  Before  passing  on,  my  companion, 
who  said  it  was  not  the  first  time  he  had  seen  such 
a  thing,  lashed  it  vigorously  with  his  whip  for 
some  moments,  but  without  producing  the  slightest 
effect. 

The  death-feigning  instinct  is  possessed  in  a  very 
marked  degree  by  the  spotted  tinamou  or  common 
partridge  of  the  pampas  (Nomura  maculosa). 
When  captured,  after  a  few  violent  struggles  to  es- 
cape, it  drops  its  head,  gasps  two  or  three  times,  and, 
to  all  appearances,  dies.  If,  when  you  have  seen 
this,  you  release  your  hold,  the  eyes  open  instantly, 
and,  with  startling  suddenness  and  a  noise  of  wings, 
it  is  up  and  away  and  beyond  your  reach  forever. 
Possibly,  while  your  grasp  is  on  the  bird,  it  does  ac- 
tually become  insensible,  though  its  recovery  from 
that  condition  is  almost  instantaneous.  Birds  when 
captured  do  sometimes  die  in  the  hand,  purely  from 
terror.  The  tinamou  is  excessively  timid,  and  some- 
times when  birds  of  this  species  are  chased— for 


1582  THE   STORY   OF  THE   UNIVERSE 

Gaucho  boys  frequently  run  them  down  on  horse- 
back— ana  when  they  find  no  burrows  or  thickets 
to  escape  into,  they  actually  drop  dead  on  the  plain. 
Probably,  when  they  feign  death  in  their  captor's 
hand,  they  are  in  reality  very  near  to  death. 

BIRDS.— J.  ARTHUR  THOMSON 

BIRDS  are  in  some  ways  the  highest  of  the  ver- 
tebrate animals.  They  represent  the  climax  of 
that  passage  from  water  to  land  which  the  back- 
boned series  illustrates.  Their  skeleton  is  more  modi- 
fied from  the  general  type  than  that  of  mammals; 
their  arrangements  for  locomotion,  breathing,  and 
nutrition  are  certainly  not  less  perfect;  their  body 
temperature,  higher  than  that  of  any  other  animals, 
is  an  index  to  the  intense  activity  of  their  general 
life;  their  habitual  and  adaptive  intelligence  is  fa- 
miliarly great,  while  in  range  of  emotion  and  sense 
impressions  they  must  be  allowed  the  palm.  It  is,  in 
fact,  only  when  we  emphasize  the  development  of 
the  nervous  system,  and  the  closeness  of  connection 
between  mother  and  offspring,  that  the  mammals  are 
seen  to  have  a  right  to  their  pre-eminence  over  birds. 
Birds  and  mammals  represent  two  divergent  lines  of 
progress,  and  stand  in  no  close  connection,  but  the 
affinities  between  birds  and  reptiles  are  sufficiently 
marked  to  warrant  their  being  included  in  a  common 
class  (Sauropsida) ,  in  contrast  to  the  amphibians  and 
fishes  (Ichthyopsida)  on  the  one  hand,  and  Mam- 
malia on  the  other.  Among  the  numerous  points  of 
difference  'which  separate  birds  from  their  nearest 


BIRDS 


1588 


relations,  the  reptiles,  and  from  mammals,  the  fol- 
lowing may  be  noticed: 


Covering    
Number  of  fingers      . 
"        "  skull  condyles 
Number  of  aortic  arches 
Diaphragm 
Blood 

REPTILES 

Scales  or  scutes 
Always  more  than  three 
One 
At  least  two 
Only  incipient 
Cold 
On  top  of  brain 
Ovi-  or  viviparous 

BIRDS 

Feathers 
At  most  three 
One 
One,  right 
Only  incipient 
Hottest 
At  sides  of  brain 
Oviparous 

MAMMALS 
Hair 
Five  or  fewer 
Two 
One,  left 
Complete 
Warm 
Covered  up 
Except  two  viviparous 

Position  of  optic  lobes     . 
Parturition       .... 

But  those  contrasts  are  only  a  few  of  the  less  tech- 
nical selected  from  Professor  Huxley's  masterly  com- 
parison of  the  three  classes.  To  appreciate  the  full 
extent  of  the  resemblances  and  differences  between 
birds  and  reptiles,  and  the  contrast  between  both  and 
mammals,  the  reader  must  consult  Huxley's  Anat- 
omy of  Vertebrate  Animals. 

Most  birds  use  their  wings  in  flight,  the  feather- 
covered  arms  being  raised  and  depressed  with  great 
rapidity  by  means  of  the  breast  muscles.  Every  one 
who  has  watched  birds  is  familiar  with  the  marked 
differences  in  rapidity  and  mode  of  flight.  It  has 
been  calculated  that  a  common  average  of  rapidity 
is  about  40  to  60  feet  per  second,  but  records  of  the 
feats  of  carrier-pigeons,  etc.,  certainly  greatly  sur- 
pass this.  It  seems  probable  that  strong-winged 
birds,  like  eagles,  can  cover  about  80  feet  in  a  second. 
Buffon  noted  that  they  disappeared  from  sight  in 
about  three  minutes.  Strong  birds,  like*  the  alba- 
tross and  birds  of  prey,  can  not  fly  very  rapidly,  but 
can  sustain  their  exertions  for  long  periods,  while 
many  other  birds  rarely  take  prolonged  flights,  ex- 
cept during  migration.  The  ostrich  uses  its  wings  to 


1584  THE   STORY   OF  THE  -UNIVERSE 

help  it  along  in  its  rapid  race;  some  aquatic  birds, 
like  the  steamer-duck,  use  them  as  paddles,  auxiliary 
to  their  legs.  On  the  ground,  birds  vary  greatly  in 
rate  and  manner  of  progression:  the  swift  strides  of 
the  ostrich,  the  rapid  run  of  the  partridge,  the  hop- 
ping of  the  sparrow  are  well-known  illustrations  of 
different  gaits.  That  many  birds  are  expert  divers 
and  climbers  is  also  a  familiar  fact. 

The  great  activity  of  birds  is  associated  with  very 
efficient  respiration.  Expiration,  or  the  expulsion 
of  used  air,  is  managed  by  the  contraction  of  breast 
and  abdominal  muscles,  which  compress  the  inclosed 
cavities  and  force  the  air  from  the  sacs  and  lungs. 
When  these  muscles  are  relaxed  the  cavities  again 
elastically  expand,  and  fresh  air  rushes  in  by  the 
windpipe  to  lungs  and  air  sacs. 

With  few  exceptions,  birds  have  a  vocal  organ,  and 
are  able  to  produce  more  or  less  variable  sounds. 
The  organ  is,  however,  wanting  in  the  running  birds, 
such  as  the  ostrich  and  the  American  vultures.  The 
sounds  produced  are  almost  as  varied  as  the  different 
kinds  of  birds,  and  an  expert  ornithologist  has  lit- 
tle difficulty  in  identifying  a  great  number  of  forms 
by  their  distinctive  noises.  That  some  chirp  and 
others  scream,  that  chattering  describes  the  language 
of  many  and  croaking  that  of  others,  that  some  boom 
and  others  bark,  that  the  crows  caw,  and  the  laughing 
jackass  laughs,  that  the  mocking-bird  imitates,  and 
the  parrot  becomes  able  to  articulate,  and  above  all 
that  the  lark  trills  and  the  nightingale  truly  sings, 
are  well-known  illustrations  of  the  variety  of  bird 
language.  The  wdrd  cry  of  the  curlew  or  whaup, 


BIRDS  1585 

the  melancholy  voice  of  the  sea-mew,  the  gabble  of 
ducks,  the  crowing  of  the  cock,  the  soft  cooing  of  the 
dove,  the  hoarse  voice  of  the  corncrake,  the  ecstatic 
melody  of  the  bobolink,  the  cheerful  notes  of  the 
blackbird,  the  educated  music  of  the  canary,  are 
again  a  random  selection  of  instances  from  an  al- 
most infinite  medley.  It  is  among  the  so-called 
perchers,  songsters,  or  Insessores  that  we  find  song 
really  developed,  and  that  for  most  part  in  the  males, 
and  in  highest  degree  at  breeding  time.  Though  the 
notes  are  not  musically  pure, many  songs  of  birds  have 
been  expressed  in  musical  notation,  and  every  one  is 
familiar  with  imitations  in  word  form.  Singing  is 
an  unbidden  expression  of  emotional  energy.  It  is 
most  marked  at  the  high  tide  of  sexual  emotion  dur- 
ing the  breeding  season.  It  is  best,  sometimes  solely, 
developed  in  the  males,  who  use  their  powers  to  at- 
tract the  females,  and  often  vie  with  one  another  in 
so  doing.  In  other  cases  the  note  is  obviously  used 
as  language,  expressing  alarm  and  the  like,  for  that 
some  birds  are  able  by  voice  to  convey  impressions  to 
one  another  is  indubitable.  In  so  far  as  the  song 
is  an  instrument  and  expression  of  sexual  attraction, 
it  fails  to  be  included  among  those  powers  which 
have  been  strengthened  and  developed  by  sexual 
selection. 

After  the  strain  of  the  reproductive  period,  or 
sometimes  at  the  low  ebb  of  mid-winter,  the  old 
feathers  drop  off,  and  birds  undergo  annual  moult. 
The  use  of  this  in  replacing  breakage,  and  in  fur- 
nishing a  complete  machinery  for  the  flight  of  migra- 
tion, is  very  evident;  the  cause  is  not  yet  sufficiently 


1586  THE   STORY   OF  THE   UNIVERSE 

investigated.  Moulting  obviously  presents  some 
analogies  with  skin-casting  and  hair-shedding  in 
other  animals,  and  must  be  associated  with  some 
deep-seated  constitutional  change,  such  as  its  con- 
nection with  the  end  of  the  breeding  season  suggests. 
Besides  this  annual  growth  of  new  feathers,  many 
birds  exhibit  double  and  some  triple  moulting.  The 
ptarmigan,  for  instance,  changes  its  suit  three  times 
in  the  year,  moulting  after  breeding  into  gray,  chang- 
ing this  for  white  as  the  winter  sets  in,  and  acquir- 
ing in  spring  a  third  and  most  attractive  set  of 
feathers.  In  association  with  sexual  attraction  many 
male  birds  seem  to  undergo  a  partial  moult,  as  the 
result  of  which  they  acquire  those  special  decorations 
which  are  the  index  of  a  reproductive  climax. 

Birds  usually  pair  in  springtime,  but  to  this  rule 
there  are  many  exceptions.  Fertilization  is  internal, 
and  all  birds  are  oviparous.  The  number  of  eggs 
is  often  in  inverse  proportion  to  the  size  of  the  bird. 
Several,  such  as  the  apteryx,  lay  only  one;  the  doves 
and  birds  of  prey  lay  two  or  three,  but  the  majority 
of  birds  many  more. 

It  is  important  to  notice  that  the  higher  develop- 
ment of  birds,  as  compared  with  reptiles,  is  asso- 
ciated with  the  production  of  fewer  offspring,  but  at 
the  same  time  with  the  enormous  increase  of  parental 
care  and  sacrifice.  If  the  young  are  to  be  devel- 
oped within  the  eggs,  the  latter  must  be  kept  at  an 
approximately  constant  warmth.  In  almost  all  cases 
this  is  effected  by  brooding,  the  frequent  helplessness 
of  the  young,  the  very  common  arboreal  habit,  the  not 
infrequent  enemies,  have  necessitated  a  most  varied 


BIRDS  1587 

series  of  nest-building  contrivances.    The  nest  is  built 
before  the  eggs  are  ready  to  be  laid,  and  in  most  cases 
the  female  takes  the  prominent  part  in  its  construc- 
tion.   But  both  in  the  building  and  in  the  subsequent 
brooding  the  male  may  do  his  share,  or  in  some  cases 
much  more.    Each  species  usually  has  its  own  pecul- 
iar style  and  material  of  construction,  though  this 
may  be  adapted  to  varying  conditions.    The  nests  are 
usually  solitary,  more  rarely  grouped,  and  very  ex- 
ceptionally   (as   among  cassowaries   and  ostriches) 
common  property.     Rooks,  sea-fowl,  herons,  are  fa- 
miliar examples  of  breeding  communities,  while  the 
sociable  grosbeak,  the  republican  swallows,  and  a  few 
others,  form  even  closer  associations.     The  cuckoo 
and  the  cowbird  have  managed  by  a  sort  of  para- 
sitism to  shirk  their  task,  and  quite  a  number  of  birds 
lay  their  eggs  in  an  exceptional  manner  in  the  nests 
of  neighbors.    The  beak  is  the  organ  most  used  in 
construction,  but  the  pressure  of  the  body  may  round 
off  the  forming  nest,  and  the  feet  may  also  be  used. 
How  comfortable  a  nest  may  be  made  inside  every 
one  knows;  how  adroitly  hidden  it  may  be  by  ex- 
ternal decorations  of  moss  and  lichen  is  familiar  to 
every  nest-hunter.    The  smaller  birds  usually  build 
the  more  beautiful  nests,  and  every  variety  occurs, 
from  the  comparatively  careless  hole  in  the  sand 
made  by  the  ostrich  to  the  skilfully  suspended  and 
neatly  fashioned  nest  of  the  tailor-bird.    It  must  be 
noticed  that  habits  vary  considerably,  as  the  very 
diverse  nests  built  in  different  circumstances  by  fal- 
con, eagle,   heron,  etc.,  well   illustrate.     Nests  are 
shifted  to  suit  food-supply,  and  vary  in  structure  ac- 


1588  THE   STORY   OF   THE   UNIVERSE 

cording  to  the  available  material.  And  again,  since 
nest-building  is  obviously  an  acquired  habit,  which 
gradually  rewarded  the  species  in  the  greater  success 
of  both  parent  and  offspring  during  breeding  time, 
it  is  natural  to  find  it  dispensed  with  in  many  cases 
where  the  nature  of  the  situation  rendered  no  actual 
nest  necessary,  or  where  the  birds  for  some  other  rea- 
son have  never  learned  the  habit.  Some  sea-birds, 
like  the  auk,  simply  lay  on  the  rocky  ledges  of  their 
haunts;  some  ground-birds  simply  deposit  their  eggs 
on  the  bare  soil. 

Burrowed  holes  are  made  by  sand-martins,  bee- 
eaters,  penguins,  kingfishers,  and  many  others.  The 
prairie-owl,  living  in  the  burrows  of  the  prairie- 
dog  and  of  the  armadillo,  is  a  well-known  example 
of  peculiar  habit,  and  in  the  first  case  of  curious  part- 
nership. Ground  nests,  generally  of  the  simplest 
character,  with  rough  and  scanty  accumulation  of 
nest  material,  are  made  by  swans,  ducks,  geese,  fowls, 
gulls,  waterhens,  corncrakes,  etc.  Mud  nests,  con- 
structed from  damp  earth,  are  well  illustrated  by  the 
house-swallows,  blue-creeper,  flamingo,  etc.  The 
common  singing  thrush  is  well  known  to  make  a  firm 
nest  of  clay  and  cow-dung  mixed  with  moss.  Car- 
penter-nests, formed  with  more  or  less  preparation  in 
the  holes  of  trees,  are  used  by  woodpeckers  and  a  few 
other  arboreal  birds.  Platform  nests,  simply  con- 
sisting of  flat  seats,  are  formed  by  the  ring  and  turtle 
doves,  by  eagles,  storks,  and  cranes.  In  some  parts 
of  the  Continent  the  flat  nests  formed  by  the  storks 
on  the  tops  of  buildings  are  familiar  enough  objects. 
Basket  nests  are  such  loosely  interwoven  construe- 


BIRDS  1589 

tions  of  grass,  stems,  twigs,  etc.,  as  are  made  by  the 
crows,  missel-thrushes,  and  most  singing  birds.  The 
green  weaving  birds  (Ploceus  pensilis)  hang  their 
loosely  woven  nests,  with  downward  directed  open- 
ing, on  the  Madagascar  trees.  The  South  African  re- 
publican birds  (Philitaerus  socius)  form  hundreds 
of  hanging  nests  on  the  branches,  under  the  shelter 
of  a  common  thatch.  Woven  nests  are  the  more  deli- 
cately constructed  and  really  woven  constructions  of 
wool,  hair,  bark,  grass,  etc.,  which  are  made  by  such 
birds  as  the  goldfinch,  the  Baltimore  bird,  and  very 
many  others.  Sewed  nests,  composed  of  leaves  sewed 
together  by  the  beak  as  needle,  are  well  illustrated 
by  various  species  of  Icterus,  and  by  the  Indian  tailor- 
bird  (Orthotomus  bennetii).  Felt-work  nests  are 
woven  from  the  wool  of  plants  or  animals,  sometimes 
with  other  material  in  addition;  the  humming-birds 
and  the  bullfinch  form  beautiful  nests  of  this  fashion. 
Cement  nests  are  bound  together  by  a  viscid  and 
very  adhesive  secretion,  which  is  mixed  with  saliva, 
and  used  to  glue  the  materials  of  the  nest  together. 
The  nests  of  the  American  swallow,  the  edible  birds' 
nests  of  the  Salangani,  sought  after  as  luxuries  by 
Chinese  and  others,  are  of  this  cemented  type.  Dome 
or  moss  nests  are  roofed  in  above  and  have  an  en- 
trance on  the  side.  The  common  wren,  the  water- 
wagtail,  and  the  tits  build  on  this  principle.  The 
beautiful  bottle-shaped  nest  of  the  titmouse  is  one  of 
the  best  examples.  The  parasite  habit  is  well  known 
among  cuckoos  and  cowbirds.  The  nest  of  another 
bird  is  utilized  to  the  future  loss  of  the  rightful  in- 
mates, and  with  obvious  economy  of  labor  on  the  part 


1590  THE   STORY   OF  THE   UNIVERSE 

of  the  intruders.  Thus  sparrows  usurp  the  nests  of 
swallows,  and  starlings  those  of  woodpeckers.  Pheas- 
ant and  partridge  eggs  are  sometimes  found  in  the 
same  nest,  and  the  same  has  been  observed  in  many 
cases — e.  g.,  gull  and  eider-duck.  When  artificial 
nests  are  forthcoming,  birds  are  glad  to  be  relieved 
of  the  labor  of  construction,  and  different  birds  thus 
sometimes  share  a  common  box.  The  resorts  of  birds, 
when  convenient  nooks  are  available,  are  often  ex- 
tremely curious. 

It  is  a  well-known  fact  that  comparatively  few 
birds  (at  any  rate  outside  of  the  tropics)  remain  in 
the  same  place  all  the  year  round.  They  do  not  hi- 
bernate, but  migrate  on  the  approach  of  cold.  Some 
we  know  as  winter  visitors,  returning  north  again  in 
spring,  most  we  know  only  in  summer,  for  in  autumn 
they  fly  to  the  warmer  south;  a  third  set  we  call 
"birds  of  passage" ;  for  these  we  only  know  somewhat 
incidentally  as  they  pass  through  on  their  way  else- 
where. 

Thus  the  swallow,  the  cuckoo,  the  nightingale, 
etc.,  come  to  Britain  in  summer  and  breed  there, 
being  winter  residents  further  south;  the  fieldfare, 
jacksnipe,  bean-goose,  redwing,  and  some  others, 
reach  Great  Britain  in  winter,  being  summer  resi- 
dents and  breeders  further  north;  while  the  little 
sandpipers  are  familiar  examples  of  the  true  birds  of 
passage  which  we  know  only  for  a  short  time  as  they 
rest  on  our  shores  in  the  journey  south  in  autumn,  and 
north  again  in  spring.  These  three  classes  are 
obviously  only  different  cases  of  one  fact  of  migra- 
tion. Almost  all  birds  are  in  some  degree  migra- 


Birds  of  all  Climes 

Crested    Grebe    {Podiceps)  ;     2,   Toucan ;    3,    Hoopoe ;    4,    Parrot    (Melopsittacus}  \ 
5,  Barn   Owl ;    6,  Crested   Penguin  ;    7,  King   Vulture  ;    8,  Ruff    (Pavoucella) ; 
9,    Horned   Owl;     10,    Wood    Duck;     it.    Kingfisher;     12,    Capuchin 
Bird  ;     13,   Grouse ;     14,  Spoonbill ;    15,    California    Quail 


BIRDS  1591 

tory.  Those  which  breed  in  the  equatorial  regions  are 
the  chief  exceptions,  and  even  they  pass  from  hill  to 
valley  and  back  again.  Forms,  too,  which  seem  to 
be  constant  residents  of  a  non-tropical  country  are 
in  many  cases  known  to  exhibit  a  partial  or  a  very 
local  migration.  This  is  true,  for  instance,  of  the 
common  wren  and  the  red  grouse  in  the  north  of 
Scotland.  All  birds  breed  in  the  colder  regions  of 
their  migration.  Changes  in  food  supply  and  the 
temperature  are  the  most  important  conditions  im- 
pelling them  to  shift  their  habitats.  The  general 
trend  of  migration  is  always,  as  indicated,  tow- 
ard the  equator  in  autumn,  from  the  equator  in 
spring;  but  the  investigations  of  the  British  Mi- 
gration Committee  have  clearly  shown  that  the 
courses  often  come  to  be  circular.  The  flight  is  the 
more  universal  in  a  country  the  more  marked  the 
contrast  between  summer  and  winter.  The  annual 
migration  from  breeding  areas  too  cold  for  winter 
residence  and  food  supply  to  warmer  subsistence 
areas  can  not  be  understood  apart  from  the  history 
of  climates.  When  the  European  climate  was  more 
equable,  it  was  virtually  indifferent  to  the  birds  where 
they  went.  As  it  grew  colder  the  birds  had  to  fly  fur- 
ther and  further  south  every  few  winters.  Migra- 
tion has  become  an  inherited  habit,  for  they  set  about 
it  before  the  impelling  conditions  are  directly  pres- 
ent. According  to  Wallace,  natural  selection  has 
played  an  important  part  in  confirming  this  habit. 
Many  facts  about  migration  are  still  utterly  obscure. 
The  power  birds  have  of  flying  straight  and  of  re- 
turning to  the  same  locality  is  very  marvelous.  It 


VOL.  IV. 


1592  THE  STORY   OF  THE   UNIVERSE 

must  be  remembered  that  a  continuous  tradition  is 
sustained;  those  who  have  made  the  journey  before 
guide  the  others.  Doubtless  they  have  memory  for 
great  landmarks.  They  fly  across  the  shallower  parts 
of  the  Mediterranean,  where  a  chain  of  islands  in  this 
submerged  tract  long  remained  to  guide  them.  The 
smaller  birds  usually  keep  nearer  the  ground;  but  it 
must  not  be  forgotten  that  the  flight  is  usually  mostly 
accomplished  by  night.  Birds  generally  meet  in  con- 
courses, and  migrate  in  flocks.  Only  a  few  fly  alone. 
Sometimes  the  old  males  remain,  while  the  others 
"flit."  The  return  northward  is  more  rapid,  without 
young  ones  or  weaklings.  The  males  often  return 
first. 

As  birds  have  a  full  active  life,  with  considerable 
variety  of  function,  in  usually  complex  environment, 
since,  as  we  have  already  noticed,  their  sense-organs 
and  nervous  systems  are  highly  developed,  consider- 
able exhibition  of  intelligence  is  to  be  expected. 
They  seem  to  have  great  vividness  of  sense  impres- 
sions, to  judge  from  their  power  of  recalling  old 
haunts  and  old  friends.  Birds  often  return  to  the 
same  place  season  after  season,  and  they  have  been 
known  to  recognize  an  owner  after  the  lapse  of  years. 
Their  quickness  of  ear  and  power  of  retention  are 
evidenced  by  the  power  some  possess  of  learning  to 
repeat  sounds,  both  words  and  tunes.  Some  have  ex- 
hibited marked  fondness  for  music,  and  the  aesthetic 
tastes  of  the  bower-bird  excite  deserved  admiration. 
Much  more  is  known  in  regard  to  their  marvelous 
hereditary,  general,  and  largely  automatic  reasonable 
habits  or  "instincts"  than  in  regard  to  their  power  of 


MIMICRY  1593 

individually  adapting  their  conduct  to  novel  circum- 
stances. Their  beautiful  and  adroit  contrivances  of 
nest-building  are  very  familiar  instances  of  the  for- 
mer, but  many  instances  of  the  latter  have  been  re- 
corded. 

As  to  feelings,  it  is  hardly  necessary  to  refer  to 
their  unexampled  exhibition  of  sexual  emotion  in 
song  and  dance,  parade,  and  display,  or  to  the  mar- 
velous parental  love  and  sacrifice  expressed  in  their 
nest-building  labors,  in  their  prolonged  incubation, 
and  in  their  care  for  and  courage  in  defending  their 
brood.  Subtler  emotions  of  jealousy,  both  in  connec- 
tion with  and  altogether  apart  from  sex,  of  affection 
for  owners  or  associations,  of  sympathy  for  wounded 
or  enfeebled  fellows,  are  also  not  rarely  exhibited. 
That  a  bird  singing  continuously  for  hours  does  not 
represent  a  rare  height  of  emotion  is  not  to  be  be- 
lieved. It  may  be  fairly  said  that  the  joyous  song  of 
the  lark  "at  heaven's  gate"  is  an  eloquent  expression 
of  emotion  only  surpassed  perhaps  by  human  music. 

MIMICRY.— DAVID   ROBERTSON 

IN  ordinary  language  a  person  who  can  imitate 
the  accent,  manner  of  talking,  and  acting  of  an- 
other is  said  to  be  a  good  mimic.  In  biology,  how- 
ever, the  term  mimicry  is  used  in  a  metaphorical 
sense,  being  applied  to  the  resemblance  which  one 
species  of  animal  or-  plant  frequently  shows  to  an- 
other. This  resemblance  is  usually  of  a  protective 
character.  It  is  evident  that  if  the  resemblance  which 
a  defenceless  species  of  animal  often  has  to  a  species 


1594  THE  STORY   OF  THE   UNIVERSE 

well  furnished  with  natural  offensive  and  defensive 
weapons  were  a  mere  freak  of  nature,  no  satisfactory 
and  philosophical  explanation  of  the  phenomenon 
could  be  given. 

Scientific  investigators  have  to  lay  aside  their  won- 
der, and  laboriously  set  about  finding  a  solution  to 
the  most  intricate  and  puzzling  phenomena  both  in 
natural  and  physical  science. 

Mimicry  was  first  used  by  Mr.  W.  H.  Bates  to 
denote  the  advantageous  and  generally  protective  re- 
semblance assumed  by  one  species  of  animal  or  plant 
to  another. 

It  will  be  seen  further  on  that  the  resemblance  is 
not  confined  to  one  species  of  animal  to  another  spe- 
cies of  animal,  and  one  species  of  plant  "to  a  plant  of 
quite  a  distinct  species,  but  that  it  also  exists  between 
animals  and  plants. 

Mr.  A.  R.  Wallace,  who,  by  his  most  patient  and 
skilful  researches  in  the  domain  of  animal  life,  has 
clearly  defined  and  limited  the  term  mimicry  as  ap- 
plied in  biology,  says :  "A  certain  species  of  plant  or 
animal  possesses  some  special  means  of  defence  from 
its  enemies,  such  as  a  sting,  a  powerful  and  disagree- 
able odor,  a  nauseous  taste,  or  a  hard  integument  or 
covering.  Some  other  species,  inhabiting  the  same 
district  or  part  of  it,  and  not  itself  provided  with 
the  same  means  of  defence,  closely  resembles  die 
first  species  in  all  external  points  of  form  and  color, 
though  often  very  different  in  structure  and  unre- 
lated in  the  biological  order." 

In  South  America  there  are  certain  butterflies,  the 
Heliconidae,  which  are  remarkable  for  the  variety 


MIMICRY  1595 

and  beauty  of  their  colors;  but  they  are  incapable 
of  rapid  and  sustained  flight,  and  would  for  this 
reason  fall  an  easy  prey  to  insect-eating  birds.  Their 
wings,  however,  are  never  found  among  those  re- 
jected by  insectivorous  birds — in  places  where  the 
remains  of  other  butterflies  frequently  cover  the 
ground.  The  Heliconidae  possess  a  powerfully  dis- 
agreeable and  pungent  odor,  which  is  so  little  volatile 
as  to  cling  to  the  fingers  for  several  days  after  hand- 
ling one  of  these  insects.  Mr.  Wallace  inferred  from 
this  that  they  have  a  disagreeable  taste,  and  would 
not  on  that  account  be  eaten  by  birds.  This  was  sub- 
sequently found  by  Mr.  Belt  to  be  the  case. 

Belonging  to  the  family  of  the  Pieridae,  which  is 
quite  distinct  from  the  family  of  the  Heliconidae, 
and  the  greater  number  of  which  are  white,  there 
is  a  genus  of  small  butterfly  named  Leptalis,  which 
is  eaten  by  birds.  Some  species  of  the  genus  Leptalis 
are  white,  like  their  allies  among  the  Pieridae,  but 
the  majority  of  the  Leptales  have  an  exact  resem- 
blance to  some  species  of  the  Heliconidae  as  far  as 
regards  the  peculiar  shape  and  color  of  their  wings. 

The  structure  of  the  two  families  is  completely 
different;  in  spite  of  this  the  resemblance  is  so  strik- 
ingly close  that  both  the  experienced  entomologists 
Mr.  Bates  and  Mr.  Wallace  often  at  the  time  of 
capture  mistook  the  one  for  the  other,  and  only  dis- 
covered their  mistake  by  a  closer  examination.  This 
has  been  looked  upon  as  the  most  typical  example 
of  true  mimicry,  and  is  interesting  from  the  fact  that 
it  is  the  first  instance  to  which  the  term  mimicry  was 
applied. 


1596  THE  STORY  OF  THE   UNIVERSE 

It  is  necessary  to  distinguish  carefully  between 
true  mimicry  and  several  similar  though  superficial 
modes  of  resemblance  which  occur  among  organic 
beings.  Several  orchids  resemble  flies  or  spiders, 
but  this  is  merely  a  case  of  accidental  resemblance. 

Among  animals  of  a  higher  order  than  insects 
mimicry  very  seldom  occurs. 

Among  mammals,  all  of  which  belong  to  the  verte- 
brates, mimicry  is  seldom  found,  and  it  is  supposed 
that  only  one  genuine  case  has  been  observed. 

Cladobates,  an  insect-eating  genus  found  in  the 
Malayan  region,  includes  many  species  closely  re- 
sembling squirrels  both  in  size  and  color,  as  well  in 
regard  to  the  bushiness  and  position  of  the  tail. 

It  is  supposed  by  Mr.  Wallace  that  Cladobates, 
owing  to  its  resemblance  to  the  harmless  fruit-eating 
squirrel',  may  be  enabled  to  approach  insects  and 
birds  upon  which  it  lives. 

Cuckoos  bear  a  considerable  resemblance  to 
hawks ;  the  cuckoo  tribe  being  weak  and  defenceless 
will  in  this  way  be  enabled  to  elude  the  voracious 
hawks. 

There  is  a  genus  of  dull-colored  birds  in  Australia 
and  the  Moluccas  named  Tropidorhynchus.  These 
birds  are  large,  active,  and  strong,  with  powerful 
claws  and  sharp  beaks.  They  congregate  in  flocks, 
and  are  remarkably  aggressive,  driving  away  crows 
and  even  hawks. 

In  these  same  countries  a  genus  of  the  group 
orioles  lives,  named  Mimeta.  These  are  much 
weaker  than  their  allies  the  golden  orioles,  and  be- 
sides are  devoid  of  their  brilliant  colors,  being 


MIMICRY  1597 

usually  olive-green  or  brown.  It  is  a  very  common 
thing  to  find  species  of  the  Mimeta  resembling 
Tropidorhynchi  living  on  the  same  island. 

The  Tropidorhynchus  bouruensis  and  Mimeta 
bouruensis  are  both  found  in  the  island  of  Bouru, 
the  latter  of  which  mimics  the  former  as  described 
by  Mr.  Wallace: 

"The  upper  and  under  surfaces  of  the  two  birds 
are  exactly  of  the  same  tints  of  dark  and  light  brown. 
The  Tropidorhynchus  has  a  large,  bare,  black  patch 
round  the  eyes;  this  is  copied  in  the  Mimeta  by  a 
patch  of  black  feathers.  The  top  of  the  head  of  the 
Tropidorhynchus  has  a  scaly  appearance  from  the 
narrow  scaly-formed  feathers,  which  are  imitated 
by  the  broader  feathers  of  the  Mimeta,  having  a 
dusky  line  down  each.  The  Tropidorhynchus  has  a 
pale  ruff,  formed  of  curious  recurved  feathers  on  the 
nape  (which  has  given  the  whole  genus  the  name  of 
friar  birds)  ;  this  is  represented  in  the  Mimeta  by  a 
pale  band  in  the  same  position.  Lastly,  the  bill  of 
the  Tropidorhynchus  is  raised  into  a  protuberant 
keel  at  the  base,  and  that  of  the  Mimeta  has  the 
same  character,  although  it  is  not  a  common  one  in 
the  genus."  The  result  is  that  when  superficially  ex- 
amined the  birds  seem  to  be  identical,  though  pos- 
sessed of  important  structural  differences,  and  placed 
wide  apart  in  any  natural  arrangement. 

Mr.  Wallace  mentions  some  curious  cases  of 
mimicry  among  reptiles,  where  a  venomous  tropical 
genus  of  snakes,  Elaps,  belonging  to  America,  is 
closely  mimicked  by  several  genera  of  harmless 
snakes. 


1098  THE   STORY  OF   THE   UNIVERSE 

It  is  in  a  special  degree  among  insects  that  cases 
of  mimicry  are  most  frequently  found. 

Genuine  cases  of  mimicry  are  not  so  easily  shown 
to  exist  among  plants.  The  resemblance  between 
white  dead  nettle  (Lamium  album)  and  the  stinging 
nettle,  as  well  as  between  other  labiates  and  the  sting- 
ing nettle,  may  be  considered  to  be  a  case  of  real 
mimicry  as  defined  above. 

The  true  stinging  nettles  are  avoided  by  animals, 
owing  to  their  possession  of  stinging  hairs,  which 
contain  an  acid  fluid  capable  of  causing  pain  and 
producing  blisters. 

It  would  be  clearly  of  advantage  to  another  plant 
to  resemble  one  possessing  such  defensive  armor  as 
the  stinging  nettle. 

There  is  another  labiate,  Ajuga  ophrydis  of  South 
Africa,  mentioned  by  Mr.  Mansel  Weale.  This 
labiate  closely  resembles  an  orchid,  and  for  this  rea- 
son insects  may  be  induced  to  visit  the  flower  and  thus 
fertilize  it. 

Mr.  Worthington  Smith,  the  eminent  fungologist, 
has  found  three  rare  British  fungi,  each  accompany- 
ing common  species,  which  they  closely  resembled; 
and  one  of  the  common  species  has  a  bitter  nauseous 
taste.  In  this  case  we  have  an  example  of  genuine 
mimicry. 

Dr.  Hans  Meyer  has  given  in  his  valuable  work, 
Across  East  African  Glaciers,  some  very  striking  in- 
stances of  mimicry.  He  says: 

"The  similarity  for  the  purpose  of  protection  of 
the  majority  of  the  great  mammals,  i.  e.,  the  like- 
ness of  the  color  of  their  coats,  and  partly  also  of 


MIMICRY  1599 

their  external  appearance,  to  the  features  and  colors 
of  the  regions  which  they  inhabit,  must  strike  every 
traveler  with  astonishment. 

"At  a  small  distance  the  hartbeest  (antelope), 
when  stationary,  is  really  not  distinguishable  from 
red  ant-heaps  which  everywhere  abound;  the  long- 
legged  and  long-necked  giraffe  can  not  be  distin- 
guished from  the  dead  trunk  of  a  mimosa,  the  zebra 
from  a  gray-brown  clump  of  grass  and  thorn-scrub, 
the  rhinoceros  from  a  fallen  trunk  of  a  tree.  It  is 
only  when  they  move  that  they  can  be  distinguished. 
Nature  has  also  extended  this  protective  mimicry 
(Schutzspiel)  to  the  small  insects;  and  perhaps  for 
this  reason  they  often  escape  the  eye  specially  in 
search  of  them;  for  butterflies  and  grasshoppers  look 
like  dry  twigs,  the  cicadae  like  leaf-stalks,  the  spiders 
like  thorns,  the  phasmodae  like  bare  twigs,  beetles 
like  small  lumps  of  earth  and  small  stones,  moths  like 
mosses  and  lichens. 

"This  protective  mimicry  is  manifested  not  only 
in  regard  to  the  colors  and  forms  of  the  animals, 
but  also  as  regards  their  movements,  or  their  man- 
ner of  standing  still,  and  in  their  preference  for  cer- 
tain localities  appropriate  to  their  disguise.  There 
is  protection  everywhere;  protection  against  climatic 
extremes  and  against  animal  foes;  such  varied  and 
abundant  protection  as  could  only  be  developed  by 
natural  selection  in  a  primeval  continent  like  Africa." 

In  spite  of  the  voluminous  literature  of  "animal 
mimicry"  since  Bates  first  published  his  classical 
memoir  on  the  subject,  the  exact  nature  of  the  process 
whereby  insects  and  other  creatures  "mimic" 


1600  THE   STORY   OP  THE   UNIVERSE 

(though  that  is  not  the  appropriate  word)  the  ap- 
pearance of  other  species  is  still  far  from  being 
understood.  All  we  know  is  that  this  power,  this  re- 
semblance of  a  beetle  or  a  butterfly  to  the  ground 
upon  which  it  sits,  the  sticks  among  which  it  creeps, 
or  the  leaves  among  which  it  flutters,  helps  to  save 
it  from  destruction,  while  it  is  a  decided  advantage 
to  it  to  "mimic"  another  insect  which  is  sedulously 
avoided  by  birds.  The  observations  in  this  byway 
of  zoology  are  as  curious  as  any  yet  made.  It 
is  found,  for  instance,  that  an  American  spider 
(Cyrlarachne)  takes  the  semblance  of  a  little  land 
shell  very  abundant  in  the  localities  which  it  fre- 
quents; and  that  another  species  (Thomisus  alca^ 
torius),  remarkable  for  the  length  of  its  forelegs, 
so  fastens  itself  on  the  stems  of  grasses  as  to  be  nearly 
indistinguishable  from  the  spikelets. 

Some  observations,  for  which  we  are  indebted  to 
M.  Heckel  of  Marseilles,  throw  a  good  deal  of  light 
on  the  origin  of  mimicry,  at  least  so  far  as  the  as- 
sumption of  protective  coloration  is  concerned. 
There  is  a  spider  (Thomisus  onustus)  very  common 
in  the  south  of  France  which  conceals  itself  in  the 
flower  of  a  species  of  wild  convolvulus  for  the  pur- 
pose of  trapping  two  kinds  of  fly  on  which  it  feeds. 
This  convolvulus  is  found  in  three  principal  vari- 
eties: white,  pink  with  deeper  spots  of  the  same  hue, 
and  light  pink  forms  with  a  slight  greenishness  on 
the  external  wall  of  the  flower.  Each  of  these  three 
varieties  is  visited  by  the  spider.  But  the  varieties 
of  spider  conform  in  hue  to  the  varieties  of  the  flower, 
and  each  confines  itself  to  the  one  which  is  most  pro- 


DWELLINGS  1601 

tective  to  it.  If,  however,  the  animal  is  confined  to 
a  Dahlia  versicolor,  it  conforms  to  the  hue  of  its  new 
abode — that  is,  the  pink  one  turns  to  red,  and,  in  like 
manner,  if  transferred  to  the  yellow  snapdragon,  it 
takes  the  color  of  this  flower.  They  change  in  shade 
as  the  shade  of  their  host  changes,  and  when  pink, 
white,  green,  and  yellow  varieties  are  confined  to- 
gether in  a  box  they  all  become  nearly  white. 

The  question  of  protective  coloration  in  fishes  has 
of  late  received  some  light  which  compels  a  revision 
of  our  former  theories  on  the  subject.  It  has  usually 
been  held  that  the  color  of  fishes  is  of  the  mimicry 
order — that  is,  it  has  been  acquired  for  the  purpose 
of  deceiving  their  enemies.  Trout  will  very  com- 
monly take  the  hue  of  the  river  bottom  over  which 
they  swim,  and,  as  every  one  knows,  it  is  difficult  to 
detect  a  flounder  or  other  flat  fish  at  rest,  though 
when  it  turns  over  the  white  under  surface  of  its 
body  instantly  reveals  the  creature's  presence.  The 
hue  of  the  upper  surface  is  due  to  the  action  of  light. 
For  when  a  sole  was  kept  in  a  raised  glass  case,  with 
light  directed  upward  from  below,  pigment  formed 
on  the  white  side,  and  began  to  be  absorbed  on  the 
one  hitherto  exposed  to  the  same  agent. 

DWELLINGS.—  FR£D£RIC   HOUSSAY 

ANIMALS  construct  dwellings  either  to  protect 
themselves  from  the  cold,  heat,  rain,  and  other 
chances  of  the  weather,  or  to  retire  to  at  moments 
when  the  search  for  food  does  not  compel  them  to  be 
outside  and  exposed  to  the  attacks  of  enemies.    Some 


1602  THE   STORY   OF  THE   UNIVERSE 

inhabit  these  refuges  permanently;  others  only  re- 
main there  during  the  winter;  others,  again,  who  live 
during  the  rest  of  the  year  in  the  open  air,  set  up 
dwellings  to  bring  forth  their  young,  or  to  lay  their 
eggs  and  rear  the  offspring. 

We  shall  find  every  stage,  from  that  of  beings  pro- 
vided for  by  nature,  and  endowed  with  a  special  or- 
gan which  secretes  for  them  a  shelter,  up  to  those 
who  are  constrained  by  necessity  to  seek  in  their  own 
intelligence  an  expedient  to  repair  the  forgetfulness 
of  nature. 

Nearly  all  the  Mollusca  are  enveloped  by  a  very 
hard  calcareous  case,  secreted  by  their  mantle:  this 
shell,  which  is  a  movable  house,  they  bear  about 
with  them  and  retire  into  at  the  slightest  warning. 

Caterpillars  which  are  about  to  be  transformed 
into  chrysalides  weave  a  cocoon,  a  very  close  dwell- 
ing in  which  they  can  go  through  their  metamor- 
phosis far  from  exterior  troubles.  It  is  an  organic 
form  of  dwelling,  or  produced  by  an  organ.  It  is 
not  necessary  to  multiply  examples  of  this  kind; 
they  are  extremely  numerous.  In  the  same  category 
must  be  ranged  the  cells  issuing  from  the  wax-glands 
which  supply  bees  with  materials  for  their  combs  in 
which  they  inclose  the  eggs  of  the  queen  with  a  pro- 
vision- of  honey. 

I  do  not  wish  to  insist  on  creations  of  this  kind 
which  are  independent  of  the  animal's  will  and  re- 
flection. Near  these  facts  must  be  placed  those  in 
which  animals,  still  using  a  natural  secretion,  yet 
endeavor  to  obtain  ingenious  advantages  from  it 
unknown  by  related  species. 


DWELLINGS  1603 

There  is,  for  example,  the  Macropus  viridi- 
auratus,  or  paradise-fish,  which  blows  air  bubbles  in 
the  mucus  produced  from  its 'mouth.  This  mucus 
becomes  fairly  resistant,  and  all  the  bubbles  impris- 
oned and  sticking  side  by  side  at  last  form  a  floor. 
It  is  beneath  this  floating  shelter  that  the  fish  sus- 
pends its  eggs  for  its  little  ones  to  undergo  their  early 
development. 

Certain  tubicolar  annelids,  whose  skin  furnishes 
abundant  mucus  which  does  not  become  sufficiently 
hard  to  form  an  efficacious  protection,  utilize  it  to 
weld  together  and  unite  around  them  neighboring 
substances,  grains  of  sand,  fragments  of  shell,  etc. 
They  thus  construct  a  case  which  both  resembles  for- 
mations by  special  organs  and  manufacture  by  the 
aid  of  foreign  materials.  The  larvae  of  Phryganea, 
who  lead  an  aquatic  life,  use  this  method  to  separate 
themselves  from  the  world  and  prepare  tubes  in 
which  to  dwell.  All  the  fragments  carried  down  by 
the  stream  are  good  for  their  labors  on  condition  only 
that  they  are  denser  than  the  water.  They  take  pos- 
session of  fragments  of  aquatic  leaves,  and  little 
fragments  of  wood  which  have  been  sufficiently  long 
in  the  water  to  have  thoroughly  imbibed  it,  and  so 
become  heavy  enough  to  keep  themselves  at  the  bot- 
tom, or  at  least  to  prevent  them  from  floating  to  the 
surface.  It  is  the  larva  of  Phryganea  striata  which 
has  been  best  studied;  those  of  neighboring  species 
evidently  act  much  in  the  same  way,  with  differences 
only  in  detail.  The  little  carpenter  stops  a  fragment 
rather  longer  than  his  own  body,  lies  on  it  and  brings 
it  in  contact  with  other  pieces  along  his  own  sides.  He 


1604  THE   STORY  OF  THE   UNIVERSE 

thus  obtains  the  skeleton  of  a  cylinder.  The  largest 
holes  are  filled  up  with  detritus  of  all  kinds.  Then 
these  materials  are  agglutinated  by  a  special  secre- 
tion. The  larva  overlays  the  interior  of  its  tube  with 
a  covering  of  soft  silk  which  renders  the  cylinder 
water-tight  and  consolidates  the  earlier  labors.  The 
insect  is  thus  in  possession  of  a  safe  retreat.  Resem- 
bling some  piece  of  rubbish,  it  completes  its  meta- 
morphosis in  peace,  undisturbed  by  the  carnivora 
of  the  stream. 

Between  the  beings  whom  nature  has  endowed  with 
a  shelter  and  those  who  construct  it  by  their  own  in- 
dustry, we  may  intercept  those  who,  deprived  of  a 
natural  asylum  and  not  having  the  inclination  or  the 
power  to  make  one,  utilize  the  dwellings  of  others, 
either  when  the  latter  still  inhabit  them,  or  when  they 
are  empty  on  account  of  the  death  or  departure  of  the 
owner.  In  the  interior  of  the  branchial  chamber  of 
many  bivalvular  mollusca,  and  especially  the  mussel, 
there  lives  a  little  crustaceous  commensal  called  the 
pea-crab  (Pinnoteres  pisum).  He  goes,  comes,  hunts, 
and  retires  at  the  least  alarm  within  his  host's  shell. 
The  mussel,  as  the  price  of  its  hospitality,  no  doubt 
profits  by  the  prizes  which  fall  to  the  little  crab's 
claws.  It  is  even  said  that  the  crab  in  recognition 
of  the  benefits  bestowed  by  his  indolent  friend  keeps 
him  acquainted  with  what  is  passing  on  around,  and 
as  he  is  much  more  active  and  alert  than  his  com- 
panion he  sees  danger  much  further  away,  and  gives 
notice  of  it,  asking  for  the  door  to  be  shut  by  lightly 
pinching  the  mussel's  gill. 

For  birds  like  the  cuckoo  and  the  Molothrus  it 


DWELLINGS  1605 

is  not  possible  to  plead  extenuating  circumstances. 
They  occupy  a  place  in  an  inhabited  house  without 
paying  any  sort  of  rent.  Every  one  knows  the 
cuckoo's  audacity.  The  female  lays  her  eggs  in  dif- 
ferent nests  and  troubles  herself  no  further  about 
their  fate.  She  seeks  for  her  offspring  a  shelter 
which  she  does  not  take  the  trouble  to  construct,  and 
moreover  at  the  same  time  assures  for  them  the  care 
of  a  stranger  in  place  of  her  own. 

In  North  America  a  kind  of  starling,  the  Molo- 
thrus  pecoris,  commonly  called  the  cowbird,  acts  in 
the  same  careless  fashion.  It  lives  in  the  midst  of 
herds,  and  owes  its  specific  name  to  this  custom;  it 
feeds  on  the  parasites  on  the  skin  of  cattle.  This 
bird  constructs  no  nest.  At  the  moment  of  laying  the 
female  seeks  out  an  inhabited  dwelling,  and  when  the 
owner  is  absent  she  furtively  lays  an  egg  there.  The 
young  intruder  breaks  his  shell  after  four  days'  in- 
cubation, that  is  to  say,  usually  much  before  the 
legitimate  children;  and  the  parents,  in  order  to  si- 
lence the  beak  of  the  stranger  who,  without  shame, 
claims  his  share  with  loud  cries,  neglect  their  own 
brood  which  have  not  yet  appeared,  and  which  they 
abandon. 

The  habits  of  the  Molothrus  bovariensis,  a  closely 
allied  Argentine  cowbird,  have  been  carefully  stud- 
ied by  Mr.  W.  H.  Hudson,  who  has  also  some  inter- 
esting remarks  as  to  the  vestiges  of  the  nesting  instinct 
in  this  interesting  parasitical  bird,  which  is  con- 
stantly dropping  eggs  in  all  sorts  of  places,  even  on 
the  ground,  most  of  them  being  lost.  Mr.  Hudson 
suggests  that  this  bird  lost  the  nest-making  instinct 


1606  THE   STORY  OF  THE   UNIVERSE 

by  acquiring  the  semi-parasitical  habit,  common  to 
many  South  American  birds,  of  breeding  in  the  large 
covered  nests  of  the  Dendrocolaptidae,  although,  ow- 
ing to  increased  severity  in  the  struggle  for  the  pos- 
session of  such  nests,  this  habit  was  defeated. 

The  Rhodius  anarus,  a  fish  of  European  rivers, 
also  ensures  a  quiet  retreat  for  his  offspring  by  a 
method  which  is  not  less  indiscreet.  At  the  period  of 
spawning,  a  male  chooses  a  female  companion  and 
with  great  vigilance  keeps  off  all  those  who  wish  to 
approach  her.  When  the  laying  becomes  imminent, 
the  Rhodius,  swimming  up  and  down  at  the  bottom 
of  the  stream,  at  length  discovers  a  Unio.  The  bi- 
valve is  asleep  with  his  shell  ajar,  not  suspecting  the 
plot  which  is  being  formed  against  him.  It  is  a 
question  of  nothing  less  than  of  transforming  him  into 
furnished  lodgings.  The  female  fish  bears  under- 
neath her  tail  a  prolongation  of  the  oviduct;  she  in- 
troduces it  delicately  between  the  mollusk's  valves 
and  allows  an  egg  to  fall  between  his  branchial  folds. 
In  his  turn  the  male  approaches,  shakes  himself  over 
it,  and  fertilizes  it.  Then  the  couple  depart  in  search 
of  another  Unio,  to  whom  to  confide  another  repre- 
sentative of  the  race.  The  egg,  well  sheltered  against 
dangers  from  without,  undergoes  development,  and 
one  fine  day  the  little  fish  emerges  and  frisks  away 
from  his  peaceful  retreat. 

The  hermit-crab  perhaps  knows  best  how  to  take 
advantage  of  old  clothes.  He  collects  shells  of  Gas- 
teropods,  abandoned  flotsam,  the  first  inhabitant  of 
which  has  died.  The  hermit-crab  (Pagurus  Bern- 
hardus)  is  a  Decapod  Crustacean — that  is  to  say,  he 


DWELLINGS  1607 

resembles  a  very  small  crab.  But  his  inveterate  habit 
during  so  many  generations  of  sheltering  his  abdo- 
men in  a  shell  prevents  this  part  from  being  incrusted 
with  lime  and  becoming  hard.  The  legs  and  the  head 
remain  in  the  ordinary  condition  outside  the  house, 
and  the  animal  moves  bearing  it  everywhere  with 
him;  on  the  least  warning  he  retires  into  it  entirely. 
But  the  crustacean  grows.  When  young  he  had 
chosen  a  small  shell.  A  mollusk,  in  growing,  makes 
his  house  grow  with  him.  The  hermit-crab  can  not 
do  this,  and  when  his  dwelling  has  become  too  nar- 
row he  abandons  it  for  one  that  is  more  comfortable. 
At  first  inclosed  in  the  remains  of  a  Trochus,  he 
changes  into  that  of  a  Purpura;  a  little  later  he  seeks 
asylum  in  a  whelk.  Besides  the  shelter  which  these 
shells  assure  to  the  crustacean,  they  serve  to  mask 
his  ferocity,  and  the  prey,  which  approaches  confi- 
dently what  it  takes  to  be  an  inoffensive  mollusk,  be- 
comes his  victim. 

The  great  horned  owl  likewise  does  not  construct 
a  nest,  but  takes  possession  of  the  dwellings  aban- 
doned by  others.  These  birds  utilize  for  laying  their 
eggs  sometimes  the  nest  of  a  crow  or  a  dove,  some- 
times the  lair  which  a  squirrel  had  considered  too 
dilapidated.  The  female,  without  troubling  about 
the  bad  state  of  these  ruins,  or  taking  pains  to  repair 
them,  lays  her  eggs  here  and  sits  on  them. 

It  is  time  to  turn  to  animals  who  have  more  regard 
for  comfort,  and  who  erect  dwellings  for  themselves 
or  their  offspring.  These  dwellings  may  be  divided 
into  three  groups :  ( i )  Those  which  are  hollowed  in 
earth  or  in  wood;  (2)  those  which  in  the  simplest 


1608  THE   STORY   OF   THE    UNIVERSE 

form  result  from  the  division  of  material  of  any  kind; 
then,  as  a  complication,  of  materials  bound  together; 
then,  as  a  last  refinement,  of  delicate  materials,  such 
as  blades  of  grass  or  threads  of  wool  woven  together; 
such  are  the  nests  of  certain  birds  and  the  tents  of 
nomads;  (3)  those  which  are  built  of  moist  earth 
which  becomes  hard  on  drying;  the  perfection  of  this 
method  consists  of  piling  up  hard  fragments,  pieces 
of  wood  or  ashlar,  the  moist  earth  being  only  a  mor- 
tar which  unites  the  hard  parts  together.  Animals 
exercise  with  varying  success  these  different  methods, 
all  of  which  man  still  practices. 

We  will  first  occupy  ourselves  with  the.  dwelling 
hollowed  in  the  earth.  It  is  the  least  complicated 
form.  The  number  of  creatures  who  purely  and 
simply  bury  themselves  thus  to  obtain  shelter  is  in- 
calculable; I  will  only  mention  a  few  examples,  and 
pass  on  from  simple  combinations  to  the  more  per- 
fected industries,  of  which  they  present  the  first 
sketch. 

Speaking  generally,  birds  are  accomplished  archi- 
tects. Certain  of  them  are,  however,  content  with  a 
rudimentary  cavern.  There  is  no  question  here  of 
those  who  retire  to  clefts  in  the  rock  or  in  trunks  of 
trees,  for  in  these  cases  the  cavity  is  only  the  support 
of  the  true  house,  and  it  is  in  the  construction  of  this 
that  the  artist  reveals  his  talent.  I  wish  to  speak  of 
animals  which  remain  in  a  burrow  without  making  a 
nest  there.  A  paroquet  of  New  Zealand  called  the 
kakapo  (Strigops  habroptilus)  thus  dwells  in  natu- 
ral or  hollowed  excavations.  It  is  only  found  in  a 
restricted  portion  of  the  island  and  leads  a  miserable 


DWELLINGS  1609 

life  there,  habitually  staying  in  the  earth  and  pursued 
by  numerous  enemies,  especially  half-wild  dogs.  It 
tries  to  hold  its  own,  but  its  wings  and  beak  do  not 
suffice  to  protect  it,  and  the  race  would  have  com- 
pletely disappeared  if  these  birds  were  not  able  to 
resist,  owing  to  the  prudence  with  which  they  stay 
within  their  dwellings.  They  profit  by  a  natural 
retreat,  or  one  constructed  in  rocks  or  beneath  roots 
of  trees ;  they  only  come  out  when  impelled  by  hun- 
ger, and  return  as  soon  as  they  can  in  case  of  danger. 

A  large  number  of  animals  also  hollow  out  shelters 
for  their  eggs,  with  the  double  object  of  maintaining 
them  at  a  constant  temperature  and  of  concealing 
them.  Most  reptiles  act  in  this  manner. 

It  is  not  only  land  animals  which  adopt  this  custom 
of  living  in  the  earth,  and  there  sheltering  their  off- 
spring. Fish  also  make  retreats  on  the  bank  or  at 
the  bottom.  To  mention  only  one  case,  the  bullhead 
(Cottus  gobio)  of  English  rivers,  which  spawns  in  the 
Seine  in  May,  June,  and  July,  acts  in  this  manner. 
Beneath  a  rock  in  the  sand  it  prepares  a  cavity;  then 
seeks  females  and  brings  them  to  lay  eggs  in  its  little 
lodging.  .During  the  four  or  five  weeks  before  they 
come  out  it  watches  the  eggs,  keeping  away  as  far  as 
possible  every  danger  which  threatens  them.  It  only 
leaves  its  position  when  pressed  by  hunger,  and  as 
soon  as  the  hunt  is  concluded,  returns  to  the  post  of 
duty. 

Other  animals  when  digging  have  a  double  object: 
they  wish  to  shelter  themselves,  and  at  the  same  time 
to  find  the  water  which  they  need  for  themselves  or 
for  the  development  of  their  young. 


1010  THE   STORY   OF   THE   UNIVERSE 

It  is  well  known  that  frogs  and  toads  generally  go 
in  the  spring  to  lay  their  eggs  in  streams  and  ponds. 
A  batrachian  of  Brazil  and  the  hot  regions  of  South 
America, the  Cystignathus  ocellatus,  no  doubt  fearing 
too  many  dangers  for  the  spawn  if  deposited  in  the 
open  water,  employs  the  artifice  of  hollowing,  not  far 
from  the  bank,  a  hole  the  bottom  of  which  is  filled  by 
infiltration.  It  there  places  its  eggs,  and  the  little 
ones  on  their  birth  can  lead  an  aquatic  life  while 
being  guaranteed  against  its  risks. 

Many  beings  live  permanently  in  a  burrow;  rep- 
tiles— snakes  or  lizards — are  to  be  placed  among 
these.  Among  others,  the  Lacerta  stirpium  arranges 
a  narrow  and  deep  hole,  well  hidden  beneath  a 
thicket,  and  retires  into  it  for  the  winter,  when  cold 
renders  it  incapable  of  movement  and  at  the  mercy 
of  its  enemies.  Before  giving  itself  up  to  its  hibernal 
sleep,  it  is  careful  to  close  hermetically  the  opening 
of  the  dwelling  with  a  little  earth  and  dried  leaves. 
When  spring  returns  and  the  heat  awakens  the  rep- 
tile, it  comes  out  to  warm  itself  and  to  hunt,  but  never 
abandons  its  dwelling,  always  retiring  into  it  in  case 
of  alarm  and  to  pass  there  cold  days  and  nights. 

Darwin  has  observed  and  described  how  a  little 
lacertilian,  the  Conlophus  subcristatus,  conducts  its 
work  of  mining  and  digging.  It  establishes  its  bur- 
row in  a  soft  tufa,  and  directs  it  almost  horizontally, 
hollowing  it  out  in  such  a  way  that  the  axis  of  the 
hole  makes  a  very  small  angle  with  the  soil.  This 
reptile  does  not  foolishly  expend  its  strength  in  this 
troublesome  labor.  It  only  works  with  one  side  of 
its  body  at  a  time,  allowing  the  other  side  to  rest. 


DWELLINGS  1611 

For  instance,  the  right  anterior  leg  sets  to  work 
digging,  while  the  posterior  leg  on  the  same  side 
throws  out  the  earth.  When  fatigued,  the  left  legs 
come  into  play,  allowing  the  others  to  repose. 

Other  animals,  without  building  their  cavern  with 
remarkable  skill,  show  much  sagacity  in  the  choice 
of  a  site  calculated  to  obtain  certain  determined  ad- 
vantages. In  Egypt  there  are  dogs  which  have  be- 
come wild.  Having  shaken  off  the  yoke  of  man, 
which  in  the  East  affords  them  little  or  no  support, 
they  lead  an  independent  life.  During  the  day  they 
remain  quiescent  in  desert  spots  or  ruins,  and  at  night 
they  prowl  about  like  jackals,  hunting  living  prey  or 
feeding  on  abandoned  carcasses.  There  are  hills 
which  have  in  a  manner  become  the  property  of 
these  animals.  They  have  founded  villages  there, 
and  allow  no  one  to  approach.  These  hills  have  an 
orientation  from  north  to  south,  so  that  one  slope  is 
exposed  to  the  sun  from  morning  to  midday  and  the 
other  from  midday  to  evening.  Now,  dogs  have  a 
great  horror  of  heat.  They  fear  the  torrid  heat  of 
the  south  as  much  as  in  our  climate  they  like  to  lie 
warmed  by  gentle  rays ;  there  is  no  shadow  too  deep 
for  their  siesta.  Therefore,  on  these  Egyptian  hills 
every  dog  hollows  out  a  lair  on  both  slopes.  In  the 
morning,  when  he  returns  from  his  nocturnal  ex- 
peditions, the  animal  takes  refuge  in  the  second,  and 
remains  there  until  midday,  sunk  in  refreshing  sleep. 
At  that  hour  the  sun  begins  to  reach  him,  and  to  es- 
cape it  he  passes  over  to  the  opposite  slope;  it  is  a 
curious  sight  to  see  them  all,  with  pendent  heads  and 
sleepy  air,  advance  with  trailing  steps  to  their  eastern 


1612  THE   STORY   OF  THE   UNIVERSE 

retreat,  settle  down  in  it,  and  continue  their  dream 
and  their  digestion  till  evening,  when  they  again  set 
forth  to  prowl. 

The  trap-door  spiders  of  the  south  of  Europe 
construct  burrows  which  have  been  studied  with 
great  care  and  in  much  detail  by  Moggridge.  He 
found  that  there  were  four  chief  types  of  burrow. 
The  whole  burrow  as  well  as  the  door  are  lined  with 
silk,  which  also  forms  the  hinge.  The  great  art  of 
the  trap-door  spider  lies  in  her  skilful  forming  of 
the  door,  which  fits  tightly,  although  it  opens  widely 
when  she  emerges,  and  which  she  frequently  holds 
down  when  an  intruder  strives  to  enter,  and  in  the 
manner  with  which  the  presence  of  the  door  is  con- 
cealed, so  as  to  harmonize  with  surrounding  objects. 
Perhaps  in  no  case  is  the  concealment  more  complete 
than  when  dead  leaves  are  employed  to  cover  the 
door.  In  some  cases  a  single  withered  olive  leaf  is 
selected,  and  it  serves  to  cover  the  entrance;  in  other 
cases  several  are  woven  together  with  bits  of  wood 
or  roots. 

The  trap-door  spider  (Mybale  henzii,  Girard), 
which  is  widely  diffused  in  California,  forms  a  sim- 
ple shaft-like  burrow,  but,  like  the  European  trap- 
door spider,  it  is  very  skilful  in  forming  an  entrance 
and  in  concealing  its  presence.  Its  habits  have 
lately  been  described  by  D.  Cleveland  of  San  Diego. 
In  the  adobe  land  hillocks  are  numerous;  they  are 
about  a  foot  in  height,  and  some  three  or  four  feet 
in  diameter.  These  hillocks  are  selected  by  the 
spiders — apparently  because  they  afford  excellent 
drainage,  and  can  not  be  washed  away  by  the  winter 


DWELLINGS  1613 

rains — and  their  stony  summits  are  often  full  of 
spiders'  nests.  These  subterranean  dwellings  are 
shafts  sunk  vertically  in  the  earth,  except  where  some 
stony  obstruction  compels  the  miner  to  deflect  from 
a  downward  course.  The  shafts  are  from  five  to 
twelve  inches  in  depth,  and  from  one-half  to  one  and 
a  half  inches  in  diameter,  depending  largely  upon  the 
age  and  size  of  the  spider. 

When  the  spider  has  decided  upon  a  location, 
which  is  always  in  clay,  adobe  or  stiff  soil,  he 
excavates  the  shaft  by  means  of  the  sharp  horns  at 
the  end  of  his  mandibles,  which  are  his  pick  and 
shovel  and  mining  tools.  The  earth  is  held  between 
the  mandibles  and  carried  to  the  surface.  When  the 
shaft  is  of  the  required  size,  the  spider  smoothes  and 
glazes  the  wall  with  a  fluid  which  is  secreted  by 
itself.  Then  the  whole  shaft  is  covered  with 
a  silken  paper  lining,  spun  from  the  animal's 
spinnerets. 

The  door  at  the  top  of  the  shaft  is  made  of  several 
alternate  layers  of  silk  and  earth,  and  is  supplied 
with  an  elastic  and  ingenious  hinge,  and  fits  closely 
in  a  groove  around  the  rim  of  the  tube.  This  door 
simulates  the  surface  on  which  it  lies,  and  is  dis- 
tinguishable from  it  only  by  a  careful  scrutiny.  The 
clever  spider  even  glues  earth  and  bits  of  small  plants 
on  the  upper  side  of  his  trap-door,  thus  making  it 
closely  resemble  the  surrounding  surface. 

The  spider  generally  stations  itself  at  the  bottom 
of  the  tube.  When,  by  tapping  on  the  door,  or  by 
other  means,  a  gentle  vibration  is  caused,  the  spider 
runs  to  the  top  of  his  nest,  raises  the  lid,  looks  out 


1614  THE   STORY   OF   THE   UNIVERSE 

and  reconnoitres.  If  a  small  creature  is  seen,  it 
is  seized  and  devoured.  If  the  invader  is  more 
formidable,  the  door  is  quickly  closed,  seized  and 
held  down  by  the  spider,  so  that  much  force  is 
required  to  lever  it  open.  Then,  with  the  intruder 
looking  down  upon  him,  the  spider  drops  to  the 
bottom  of  his  shaft. 

It  has  been  found  by  many  experiments  that  when 
the  door  of  his  nest  is  removed,  the  spider  can  renew 
it  five  times — never  more  than  that.  Within  these 
limitations,  the  door  torn  off  in  the  evening  was 
found  replaced  by  a  new  one  in  the  morning.  Each 
successive  renewal  showed,  however,  a  greater  pro- 
portion of  earth,  and  a  smaller  proportion  of  silk, 
until  finally  the  fifth  door  had  barely  enough  silk  to 
hold  the  earth  together.  The  sixth  attempt,  if  made, 
was  a  failure,  because  the  spinnerets  had  exhausted 
their  supply  of  the  web  fluid.  When  the  poor  per- 
secuted spider  finds  his  domicile  thus  open  and  de- 
fenceless, he  is  compelled  to  leave  it,  and  wait  until 
his  stock  of  web  fluid  is  renewed. 

Skilful  diggers  prepare  burrows  with  several  en- 
trances ;  some  even  arrange  several  rooms,  each  for  a 
special  object.  The  otter  seeks  its  food  in  the  water, 
and  actively  hunts  fish  in  ponds  and  rivers.  But 
when  fishing  is  over,  it  likes  to  keep  dry  and  at  the 
same  time  sheltered  from  terrestrial  enemies.  Its 
dwelling  must  also  present  an  easy  opening  into  the 
water.  In  order  to  fulfil  all  the  conditions,  its  house 
consists  first  of  a  large  room  hollowed  in  the  bank  at 
a  level  sufficiently  high  to  be  beyond  reach  of  floods. 
From  the  bottom  of  this  keep  a  passage  starts  which 


DWELLINGS  1615 

sinks  and  opens  about  fifty  centimetres  beneath  the 
surface  of  the  water.  It  is  through  here  that  the 
otter  noiselessly  glides  to  find  himself  in  the  midst 
of  his  hunting  domain  without  having  been  seen  or 
been  obliged  to  make  a  noisy  plunge  which  would 
put  the  game  to  flight.  If  this  were  all,  the  hermeti- 
cally closed  dwelling  would  soon  become  uninhabit- 
able, as  there  would  be  no  provision  for  renewing 
the  air,  so  the  otter  proceeds  to  form  a  second  pas- 
sage from  the  ceiling  of  the  room  to  the  ground,  thus 
forming  a  ventilation  tube.  In  order  that  this  may 
not  prove  a  cause  of  danger,  it  is  always  made  to  open 
up  in  the  midst  of  brushwood  or  in  a  tuft  of  rushes 
and  reeds. 

Marmots  also  are  not  afraid  of  the  work  which  will 
assure  them  a  warm  and  safe  refuge  in  the  regions 
they  inhabit,  where  the  climate  is  rough.  In  summer 
they  ascend  the  Alps  to  a  height  of  2,500  to  3,000 
metres  and  rapidly  hollow  a  burrow  like  that  for 
winter  time,  which  I  am  about  to  describe,  but  smaller 
and  less  comfortable.  They  retire  into  it  during  bad 
weather  or  to  pass  the  night.  When  the  snow 
chases  them  away  and  causes  them  to  descend  to  a 
lower  zone,  they  think  about  constructing  a  genuine 
house  in  which  to  shut  themselves  during  the  winter 
and  to  sleep.  Twelve  or  fifteen  of  these  little  ani- 
mals unite  their  efforts  to  make  first  a  horizontal  pas- 
sage, which  may  reach  the  length  of  three  or  four 
metres.  They  enlarge  the  extremity  of  it  into  a 
vaulted  and  circular  room  more  than  two  metres  in 
diameter.  They  make  there  a  good  pile  of  very  dry 
hay  on  which  they  all  install  themselves,  after  having 

o  IV- 


1616  THE   STORY   OF  THE   UNIVERSE 

carefully  protected  themselves  against  the  external 
cold  by  closing  up  the  passage  with  stones  and  calk- 
ing the  interstices  with  grass  and  moss. 

In  solitary  woods  or  roads  the  badger  (Meles), 
who  does  not  like  noise,  prepares  for  himself  a  peace- 
ful retreat,  clean  and  well  ventilated,  composed  of 
a  vast  chamber  situated  about  a  metre  and  a  half  be- 
neath the  surface.  He  spares  no  pains  over  it,  and 
makes  it  communicate  with  the  external  world  by 
seven  or  eight  very  long  passages,  so  that  the  points 
where  they  open  are  about  thirty  paces  distant  from 
one  another.  In  this  way,  if  an  enemy  discovers  one 
of  them  and  introduces  himself  into  the  badger's 
home,  the  badger  can  still  take  flight  through  one 
of  the  other  passages.  In  ordinary  times  they  serve 
for  the  aeration  of  the  central  room.  The  animal 
attaches  considerable  importance  to  this.  He  is  also 
very  clean  in  his  habits,  and  every  day  may  be  seen 
coming  out  for  little  walks,  having  an  object  of  an 
opposite  nature  to  the  search'  for  food.  This  praise- 
worthy habit  is,  as  we  shall  see,  exploited  by  the  fox 
in  an  unworthy  manner. 

The  fox  has  many  misdeeds  on  his  conscience,  but 
his  conduct  toward  the  badger  is  peculiarly  indeli- 
cate. The  fox  is  a  skilful  digger,  and  when  he  can 
not  avoid  it,  he  can  hollow  out  a  house  with  several 
rooms.  The  dwelling  has  numerous  openings,  both 
as  a  measure  of  prudence  and  of  hygiene,  for  this 
arrangement  enables  the  air  to  be  renewed.  He  pre- 
pares several  chambers  side  by  side,  one  of  which 
he  uses  for  observation  and  to  take  his  siesta  in;  a 
second  as  a  sort  of  larder  in  which  he  piles  up  what 


DWELLINGS  1617 

he  can  not  devour  at  once;  a  third  in  which  the 
ferhale  brings  forth  and  rears  her  young.  But  he 
does  not  hesitate  to  avoid  this  labor  when  possible. 
If  he  finds  a  rabbit  warren  he  tries  first  to  eat  the 
inhabitants,  and  then,  his  mind  cleared  from  this 
anxiety,  arranges  their  domicile  to  his  own  taste,  and 
comfortably  installs  himself  in  it.  In  South  America, 
again,  the  Argentine  fox  frequently  takes  up  per- 
manent residence  in  a  vizcachera,  ejecting  the  right- 
ful owners ;  he  is  so  quiet  and  unassuming  in  his  man- 
ners that  the  vizcachas  become  indifferent  to  his 
presence,  but  in  spring  the  female  fox  will  seize  on 
the  young  vizcachas  to  feed  her  own  young,  and  if 
she  has  eight  or  nine,  the  young  of  the  whole  village 
of  vizcachas  may  be  exterminated. 

The  badger's  dwelling  appears  to  the  fox  particu- 
larly enviable.  In  order  to  dislodge  the  proprietor 
he  adopts  the  following  plan:  Knowing  that  the 
latter  can  tolerate  no  ordure  near  his  home,  he 
chooses  as  a  place  of  retirement  one  of  the  passages 
which  lead  to  the  chamber  of  the  peaceful  recluse. 
He  insists  repeatedly,  until  at  last  the  badger,  in- 
sulted by  this  grossness,  and  suffocated  by  the  odor, 
decides  to  move  elsewhere  and  hollow  a  fresh  palace. 
The  fox  is  only  waiting  for  this,  and  installs  himself. 

The  vizcacha  (Lagostomus  trichodactylus)  is  a 
large  rodent  inhabiting  a  vast  extent  of  country  in 
the  pampas  of  La  Plata,  Patagonia,  etc.  Unlike 
most  other  burrowing  species,  the  vizcacha  prefers 
to  work  on  open  level  spots.  On  the  great  grassy 
plains  it  is  even  able  to  make  its  own  conditions,  like 
the  beaver,  and  is  in  this  respect,  and  in  its  highly 


1618  THE   STORY   OF  THE   UNIVERSE 

developed  social  instinct,  among  the  two  or  three 
mammals  which  approach  man,  although  only  a 
rodent,  and  even  in  this  order,  according  to  Water- 
house,  coming  very  low  down  by  reason  of  its  mar- 
supial affinities. 

The  vizcacha  lives  in  small  communities  of  from 
twenty  to  thirty  members,  in  a  village  of  deep- 
chambered  burrows,  some  twelve  or  fifteen  in  num- 
ber, with  large  pit-like  entrances  closely  grouped 
together,  and  as  the  vizcachera,  as  this  village  is 
called,  endures  for  an  indefinitely  long  period,  the 
earth  which  is  constantly  brought  up  forms  an  irreg- 
ular mound  thirty  or  forty  feet  in  diameter,  and  from 
fifteen  to  thirty  inches  above  the  level  of  the  road; 
this  mound  serves  to  protect  the  dwelling  from 
floods  on  low  ground.  A  clearing  is  made  all  round 
the  abode  and  all  rubbish  thrown  on  the  mound ;  the 
vizcachas  thus  have  a  smooth  turf  on  which  to  dis- 
port themselves,  and  are  freed  from  the  danger  of 
lurking  enemies. 

The  entire  village  occupies  an  area  of  one  hundred 
to  two  hundred  square  feet  of  ground.  The  burrows 
vary  greatly  in  extent;  usually  in  a  vizcachera  there 
are  several  that,  at  a  distance  of  from  four  to  six  feet 
from  the  entrance,  open  into  large  circular  chambers. 
From  these  chambers  other  burrows  diverge  in  all 
directions,  some  running  horizontally,  others  oblique- 
ly downward  to  a  maximum  depth  of  six  feet  from 
the  surface;  some  of  these  galleries  communicate 
with  those  of  other  burrows. 

On  viewing  a  vizcachera  closely,  the  first  thing  that 
strikes  the  observer  is  the  enormous  size  of  the 


DWELLINGS  1619 

entrances  to  the  central  burrows  in  the  mound;  there 
are  usually  several  smaller  outside  burrows.  The 
entrance  to  some  of  the  principal  burrows  is  some- 
timrs  four  to  six  feet  across  the  mouth,  and  some- 
times it  is  deep  enough  for  a  tall  man  to  stand  in  up 
to  the  waist. 

Certain  rodents  have  carried  hollow  dwellings  to 
great  perfection.  Among  these  the  hamster  of 
Germany  (Cricteus  frumentarius)  is  not  the  least 
ingenious.  To  his  dwelling-room  he  adds  three  or 
four  storehouses  for  amassed  provisions.  The  burrow 
possesses  two  openings:  one,  which  the  animal  pre- 
fers to  use,  which  sinks  vertically  into  the  soil;  the 
other,  the  passage  of  exit,  with  a  gentle  and  very 
winding  slope.  The  bottom  of  the  central  room  is 
carpeted  with  moss  and  straw,  which  make  it  a  warm 
and  pleasant  home.  A  third  tunnel  starts  from  this 
sleeping  chamber,  soon  forking  and  leading  to  the 
wheat  barns.  Thus  during  the  winter  the  hamster 
has  no  pressing  need  to  go  out  except  on  fine  days 
for  a  little  fresh  air.  He  has  everything  within  his 
reach,  and  can  remain  shut  up  with  nothing  to  fear 
from  the  severity  of  the  season. 

It  is  not  only  the  soil  which  may  serve  for  retreat; 
wood  serves  as  an  asylum  for  numerous  animals,  who 
bore  it,  and  find  in  it  both  food  and  shelter.  In  this 
class  must  be  placed  a  large  number  of  worms,  in- 
sects, and  crustaceans.  One  of  these  last,  the  Chelura 
terebrans,  a  little  amphipod,  constitutes  a  great 
danger  for  the  works  of  man.  It  attacks  piles  sunken 
to  support  structures,  and  undermines  them  to  such 
a  degree  that  they  eventually  fall. 


1620  THE   STORY   OF  THE   UNIVERSE 

An  insect,  the  Xylocopa  violacea,  related  to  the 
humblebee,  from  which  it  differs  in  several  anatom- 
ical characters,  and  by  the  dark  violet  tint  of  its 
wings,  brings  an  improvement  to  the  formation  of 
the  shelter  which  it  makes  in  wood  for  its  larvae. 
Instead  of  hollowing  a  mere  retreat  to  place  there  all 
its  eggs  indiscriminately,  it  divides  them  into  com- 
partments, separated  by  horizontal  partitions.  It  is 
the  female  alone  who  accomplishes  this  task,  con- 
nected with  the  function  of  perpetuating  the  race. 
She  chooses  an  old  tree-trunk,  a  pole,  or  the  post 
of  a  fence,  exposed  to  the  sun  and  already  worm- 
eaten,  so  that  her  labor  may  be  lightened.  She  first 
attacks  the  wood  perpendicularly  to  the  surface, 
then  suddenly  turns  and  directs  downward  the  pas- 
sage, the  diameter  of  which  is  about  equal  to  the 
size  of  the  insect's  body.  The  Xylocopa  thus  forms 
a  tube  about  thirty  centimetres  in  length.  Quite  at 
the  bottom  she  places  the  first  egg,  leaving  beside  it 
a  provision  of  honey  necessary  to  nourish  the  larva 
during  its  evolution ;  she  then  closes  it  with  a  parti- 
tion. This  partition  is  made  with  fragments  of  the 
powder  of  wood  glued  together  with  saliva.  A  first 
horizontal  ring  is  applied  round  the  circumference 
of  the  tube;  then  in  the  interior  of  this  first  ring  a 
second  is  formed,  and  so  on  continuously,  until  the 
central  opening,  more  and  more  reduced,  is  at  last 
entirely  closed  up.  This  ceiling  forms  the  floor  for 
the  next  chamber,  in  which  the  female  deposits  a  new 
egg,  provided,  like  the  other,  with  abundant  pro- 
visions. The  same  acts  are  repeated  until  the  retreat 
becomes  transformed  into  a  series  of  isolated  cells 


DWELLINGS  1621 

in  which  the  larvae  can  effect  their  development, 
and  from  which  they  will  emerge  either  by  them- 
selves perforating  a  thin  wall  which  separates  them 
from  daylight,  or  by  an  opening  which  the  careful 
mother  has  left  to  allow  them  to  attain  liberty  with- 
out trouble. 

The  second  class  of  habitation,  which  I  have  called 
the  woven  dwelling,  proceeds  at  first  from  the  parcel- 
ing up  of  substances,  then  of  objects  capable  of  being 
entangled  like  wisps  of  wood  or  straw,  then  of  fine 
and  supple  materials  which  the  artisan  can  work  to- 
gether in  a  regular  manner,  that  is  to  say,  by  felting 
or  weaving. 

There  are,  first,  cases  in  which  the  will  of  the  ani- 
mal does  not  intervene,  or  at  least  is  very  slightly 
manifested.  The  creature  is  found  covered  and  pro- 
tected by  foreign  bodies  which  are  often  living  be- 
ings. Spider-crabs  (Ma'ia),  for  example,  have  their 
carapaces  covered  with  algae  and  hydroids  of  all 
sorts.  Thus  garnished,  the  Crustaceans  have  the  ad- 
vantage of  not  being  recognized  from  afar  when  they 
go  hunting,  since  beneath  this  fleece  they  resemble 
some  rock.  H.  Fol  has  observed  at  Villefranche- 
sur-Mer  a  Ma'ia  so  buried  beneath  this  vegetation 
that  it  was  impossible  at  first  sight  to  distinguish  it 
from  the  stones  around.  Under  these  conditions  the 
animal  submits  to  a  shelter  rather  than  creates  it. 
Yet  it  is  not  so  passive  as  one  might  at  first  be  led 
to  suppose.  When  the  algae  which  flourish  on 
its  back  become  too  long  and  impede  or  delay  its 
progress,  it  tears  them  off  with  its  claws  and  thor- 
oughly cleans  itself.  The  carapace  being  quite  clean, 


1622  THE   STORY   OF   THE   UNIVERSE 

the  animal  finds  itself  too  smooth  and  too  easy  to 
distinguish  from  surrounding  objects;  it  therefore 
takes  up  again  fragments  of  algae  and  replaces  them 
where  they  do  not  delay  to  take  root  like  cuttings 
and  to  flourish  anew. 

The  sponge-crab  (Dromia  vulgaris)  also  prac- 
tices this  method  of  shelter.  It  seizes  a  large  sponge 
and  maintains  it  firmly  over  its  carapace  with  the  help 
of  the  posterior  pair  of  limbs.  The  sponge  continues 
to  prosper  and  to  spread  over  the  Crustacean  who 
has  adopted  it.  The  two  beings  do  not  seem  to  be 
definitely  fixed  to  each  other;  the  contact  of  a  sudden 
wave  will  separate  them.  When  the  divorce  is 
effected,  the  Dromia  immediately  throws  itself  on  its 
cherished  covering  and  replaces  it.  M.  Kiinckel 
d'Herculais  tells  of  one  of  these  curious  Crustaceans 
which  delighted  the  workers  in  the  laboratory  of 
Concarneau.  The  need  for  covering  themselves  ex- 
perienced by  these  crabs  is  so  strong  that  in  aqua- 
riums when  their  sponge  is  taken  away  they  will 
apply  to  the  back  a  fragment  of  wrack  or  of  anything 
which  comes  to  hand.  A  little  white  cloak  with  the 
arms  of  Brittany  was  manufactured  for  one  of  these 
captives,  and  it  was  very  amusing  to  see  him  put  on 
his  overcoat  when  he  had  nothing  else  wherewith 
to  cover  himself. 

An  Australian  bird,  the  Catheturus  Lathami,  as 
described  by  Gould,  is  still  in  the  rudiments,  and 
limits  itself  to  preparing  an  enormous  pile  of  leaves. 
It  begins  its  work  some  weeks  before  laying  its 
eggs;  with  its  claws  it  pushes  behind  it  all  the  dead 
leaves  which  fall  on  the  earth  and  brings  them  into  a 


DWELLINGS  1623 

heap.  The  bird  throws  new  material  on  the  summit 
until  the  whole  is  of  suitable  height.  This  detritus 
ferments  when  left  to  itself,  and  a  gentle  heat  is 
developed  in  the  centre  of  the  edifice.  The  Cathe- 
turus  returns  to  lay  near  this  coarse  shelter;  it  then 
takes  each  egg  and  buries  it  in  the  heap,  the  larger 
end  uppermost.  It  places  a  new  layer  above,  and 
quits  its  labor  for  good.  Incubation  takes  place 
favored  by  the  uniform  heat  of  this  decomposing 
mass,  hatching  is  produced,  and  the  young  emerge 
from  their  primitive  nest. 

Birds  are  not  alone  in  constructing  temporary 
dwellings  in  which  to  lay  their  eggs;  some  fish  are 
equally  artistic  in  this  kind  of  industry,  and  even 
certain  reptiles.  The  alligator  of  the  Mississippi 
would  not  perhaps  at  first  be  regarded  as  a  model 
of  maternal  foresight.  Yet  the  female  constructs  a 
genuine  nest.  She  seeks  a  very  inaccessible  spot  in 
the  midst  of  brushwood  and  thickets  of  reeds.  With 
her  jaw  she  carries  thither  boughs  which  she  arranges 
on  the  soil  and  covers  with  leaves.  She  lays  her  eggs 
and  conceals  them  with  care  beneath  vegetable  re- 
mains. Not  yet  considering  her  work  completed, 
she  stays  in  the  neighborhood  watching  with  jealous 
eye  the  thicket  which  shelters  the  dear  deposit,  and 
never  ceases  to  mount  guard  threateningly  until  the 
day  when  her  young  ones  can  follow  her  into  the 
stream. 

A  hymenopterous  relative  of  the  bees,  the  Mega- 
chile,  cuts  out  in  rose-leaves  fragments  of  appro- 
priate form  which  it  bears  away  to  a  small  hole  in  a 
tree,  an  abandoned  mouse  nest  or  some  similar  cavity. 


1624  THE   STORY   OF  THE   UNIVERSE 

There  it  rolls  them,  works  them  up,  and  arranges 
them  with  much  art,  so  as  to  manufacture  what  re- 
semble thimbles,  which  it  fills  with  honey  and  in 
which  it  lays. 

The  Anthocopa  acts  in  a  similar  manner,  carpeting 
the  holes  of  which  it  takes  possession  with  the  deli- 
cate petals  of  the  corn  poppy. 

The  retreats  of  nocturnal  birds  of  prey  do  not 
differ  in  method  of  construction  from  these  two  kinds 
of  nests.  They  are  holes  in  trees,  in  ruins,  in  old 
walls,  and  are  lined  with  soft  and  warm  material. 
These  dwellings  are  related,  not  to  the  type  of  the 
hollowed  cave,  but  to  that  of  the  habitation  manu- 
factured from  mingled  materials.  They  constitute 
an  inferior  form  in  which  the  pieces  are  not  firmly 
bound  together,  but  need  support  throughout.  The 
cavity  is  the  support  which  sustains  the  real  house. 

Diurnal  birds  of  prey  are  the  first  animals  who 
practice  skilfully  the  twining  of  materials.  Their 
nests,  which  have  received  the  name  of  eyries,  are 
not  yet  masterpieces  of  architecture,  and  reveal  the 
beginning  of  the  industry  which  is  pushed  so  far  by 
other  birds.  Usually  situated  in  wild  and  inaccessible 
spots,  the  young  are  there  in  safety  when  their 
parents  are  away  on  distant  expeditions.  The  abrupt 
summits  of  cliffs  and  the  tops  of  the  highest  forest 
trees  are  the  favorite  spots  chosen  by  the  great  birds 
of  prey.  The  eyrie  generally  consists  of  a  mass  of 
dry  branches  which  cross  and  mutually  support  one 
another,  constituting  a  whole  which  is  fairly  re- 
sistant. 

The  abodes  of  squirrels,  though  exhibiting  more 


DWELLINGS  1625 

art,  are  constructions  of  the  same  nature;  that  is  to 
say,  they  are  formed  of  interlaced  sticks.  This  ani- 
mal builds  its  home  to  shelter  itself  there  in  the  bad 
season,  to  pass  the  night  in,  and  to  rear  its  young. 
Very  agile,  and  not  afraid  of  climbing,  it  places  its 
domicile  near  the  tops  of  our  highest  forest  trees. 
Rather  capricious  also,  and  desiring  change  of  resi- 
dence from  time  to  time,  it  builds  several  of  them;  at 
least  three  or  four,  sometimes  more.  The  materials 
which  it  needs  are  collected  on  the  earth  among  fallen 
dead  branches,  or  are  torn  away  from  the  old  aban- 
doned nest  of  a  crow  or  some  other  bird.  The  squir- 
rel first  builds  a  rather  hollow  floor  by  intermingling 
the  fragments  of  wood  which  it  has  brought.  In  this 
state  its  dwelling  resembles  a  magpie's  nest.  But  the 
fastidious  little  animal  wishes  to  be  better  protected 
and  not  thus  to  sleep  in  the  open  air.  Over  this  foun- 
dation he  raises  a  conical  roof;  the  sticks  which  form 
it  are  very  skilfully  disposed,  and  so  well  interlaced 
that  the  whole  is  impenetrable  to  rain.  The  house 
must  still  be  furnished,  and  this  is  done  with  Orien- 
tal luxury;  that  is  to  say,  the  entire  furniture  consists 
of  a  carpet,  a  carpet  of  very  dry  moss,  which  the 
squirrel  tears  from  the  trunks  of  trees,  and  which  it 
piles  up  so  as  to  have  a  soft  and  warm  couch.  An 
entrance  situated  at  the  lower  part  gives  access  to  the 
aerial  castle;  it  is  usually  directed  toward  the  east. 
On  the  opposite  side  there  is  another  orifice  by  which 
the  animal  can  escape  if  an  enemy  should  invade  the 
principal  entrance.  In  ordinary  times  also  it  serves 
to  ventilate  the  chamber  by  setting  up  a  slight  cur- 
rent of  air.  The  squirrel  greatly  fears  storms  and 


1626  THE   STORY   OF  THE   UNIVERSE 

rain,  and  during  bad  weather  hastens  to  take  refuge 
in  his  dwelling.  If  the  wind  blows  in  the  direction 
of  the  openings,  the  little  beast  at  once  closes  them 
with  two  stoppers  of  moss,  and  keeps  well  shut  in  as 
long  as  the  storm  rages. 

The  great  Anthropoid  apes  have  found  nothing 
better  for  shelter  than  the  squirrels'  method.  It 
must,  however,  be  taken  into  account  that  they  have 
much  more  difficulty  in  arranging  and  maintaining 
much  heavier  rooms,  and  in  building  up  a  shelter 
with  larger  surface. 

The  orang-outang,  which  lives  in  the  virgin  forests 
of  the  Sunda  Archipelago,  does  not  feel  the  need  of 
constructing  a  roof  against  the  rain.  He  is  content 
with  a  floor  established  in  the  midst  of  a  tree,  and 
made  of  broken  and  interlaced  branches.  He  piles 
up  on  this  support  a  considerable  mass  of  leaves  and 
moss;  for  the  orang  does  not  sleep  seated  like  the 
other  great  apes,  but  lies  down  in  the  manner  of  man, 
as  has  often  been  observed  when  he  is  in  captivity. 
When  he  feels  the  cold  he  is  ingenious  enough  to 
cover  himself  with  the  leaves  of  his  couch. 

In  Upper  and  Lower  Guinea  the  chimpanzee 
(Troglodytes  niger)  also  establishes  his  dwelling  on 
trees.  He  first  makes  choice  of  a  large  horizontal 
branch,  which  constitutes  a  sufficient  floor  for  the 
agile  animal.  Above  this  branch  he  bends  the  neigh- 
boring boughs,  crosses  them,  and  interlaces  them  so 
as  to  obtain  a  sort  of  framework.  When  this  prelimi- 
nary labor  is  accomplished,  he  collects  dead  wood  or 
breaks  up  branches  and  adds  them  to  the  first.  Be- 
fore commencing  he  had  taken  care  when  choosing 


DWELLINGS  1627 

the  site  that  the  whole  was  so  arranged  that  a  fork 
was  within  reach  to  sustain  the  roof.  He  thus  con- 
structs a  very  sufficient  shelter. 

The  Troglodytes  calvus,  a  relative  of  the  preced- 
ing, inhabiting  the  same  regions,  as  described  by  Du 
Chaillu,  shows  still  more  skill  in  raising  his  roof. 
A  tree  is  always  chosen  for  support.  He  breaks  off 
boughs  and  fastens  them  by  one  end  to  the  trunk,  by 
the  other  to  a  large  branch.  To  fix  all  these  pieces 
he  employs  very  strong  creepers,  which  grow  in 
abundance  in  his  forests.  Above  this  framework, 
which  indicates  remarkable  ingenuity,  the  animal 
piles  up  large  leaves,  forming  in  layers  well  pressed 
down  and  quite  impenetrable  to  the  rain.  The  whole 
has  the  appearance  of  an  open  parasol.  The  ape  sits 
on  a  branch  beneath  his  handiwork,  supporting  him- 
self against  the  trunk  with  one  arm.  He  has  thus  an 
excellent  shelter  against  the  midday  sun  as  well  as 
against  tropical  showers. 

There  exists  in  Australia  a  bird  with  very  curious 
customs.  This  is  the  satin  bower-bird.  The  art  dis- 
played in  this  bird's  constructions  is  not  less  inter- 
esting than  the  sociability  he  gives  evidence  of,  and 
his  desire  to  have  for  his  hours  of  leisure  a  shelter 
adorned  to  his  taste.  The  bowers  which  he  con-  - 
structs,  and  which  present  on  a  small  scale  the  ap- 
pearance of  the  arbors  in  our  old  gardens,  are  places 
for  reunion  and  for  warbling  and  courtship,  in  which 
the  birds  stay  during  the  day,  when  no  anxiety  leads 
them  to  disperse.  They  are  not,  properly  speaking, 
nests  built  for  the  purpose  of  rearing  young;  for  at 
the  epoch  of  love  each  couple  separates  and  constructs 


1628  THE   STORY   OF   THE   UNIVERSE 

a  special  retreat  in  the  neighborhood  of  the  bower. 
These  shelters  are  always  situated  in  the  most  re- 
tired parts  of  the  forest,  and  are  placed  on  the  earth 
at  the  foot  of  trees.  Several  couples  work  together 
to  raise  the  edifice,  the  males  performing  the  chief 
part  of  the  work.  At  first  they  establish  a  slightly  con- 
vex floor,  made  with  interlaced  sticks,  intended  to 
keep  the  place  sheltered  from  the  moisture  of  the 
soil.  The  arbor  rises  in  the  centre  of  this  first  plat- 
form. Boughs  vertically  arranged  are  interlaced  at 
the  base  with  those  of  the  floor.  The  birds  arrange 
them  in  two  rows  facing  each  other;  they  then  curve 
together  the  upper  extremities  of  these  sticks,  and 
fix  them  so  as  to  obtain  a  vault.  All  the  prominences 
in  the  materials  employed  are  turned  toward  the  out- 
side, so  that  the  interior  of  the  room  may  be  smooth 
and  the  birds  may  not  catch  their  plumage  in  it. 
This  done,  the  little  architects,  to  embellish  their  re- 
treat, transport  to  it  a  number  of  conspicuous  objects, 
such  as  very  white  stones  from  a  neighboring  stream, 
shells,  the  bright  feathers  of  the  paroquet,  whatever 
comes  to  their  beak.  All  these  treasures  are  arranged 
on  the  earth,  before  the  two  entries  to  the  bower,  so 
as  to  form  on  each  side  a  carpet,  which  is  not  smooth, 
but  the  varied  colors  of  which  rejoice  the  eye.  The 
prettiest  treasures  are  fixed  into  the  wall  of  the  hut. 
These  objects  are  intended  solely  for  the  delight  of 
these  feathered  artists.  They  are  very  careful  also 
only  to  collect  pieces  which  have  been  whitened  and 
dried  by  the  sun. 

Certain  humming-birds  also,  according  to  Gould, 
decorate  their  dwellings  with  great  taste.    "They  in- 


DWELLINGS  1629 

stinctively  fasten  thereon,"  he  stated,  "beautiful 
pieces  of  flat  lichen,  the  larger  pieces  in  the  middle, 
and  the  smaller  on  the  part  attached  to  the  branch. 
Now  and  then  a  pretty  feather  is  intertwined  or 
fastened  to  the  outer  sides,  the  stem  being  always  so 
placed  that  the  feather  stands  out  beyond  the  surface. 

In  spite  of  their  lack  of  skill  and  the  inadequacy 
of  their  organs,  fish  are  not  the  most  awkward  archi- 
tects. The  species  which  construct  nests  for  laying 
in  are  fairly  numerous;  the  classical  case  of  the 
stickleback  is  always  quoted,  but  this  is  not  the  only 
animal  of  its  class  to  possess  the  secret  of  the  manu- 
facture of  a  shelter  for  its  eggs. 

A  fish  of  Java,  the  gourami  (Osphronemus  olfax), 
establishes  an  ovoid  nest  with  the  leaves  of  aquatic 
plants  woven  together.  It  makes  its  work  about  the 
size  of  a  fist,  takes  no  rest  until  it  is  completed,  and 
is  able  to  finish  it  in  five  or  six  days.  It  is  the  male 
alone  who  weaves  this  dwelling;  when  it  is  ready  a 
female  comes  to  lay  there,  and  generally  fills  it;  it 
may  contain  from  six  hundred  to  a  thousand  eggs. 

Without  doubt  the  class  of  birds  furnishes  the  most 
expert  artisans  in  the  industry  of  the  woven  dwelling. 
In  our  own  country  we  may  see  them  seeking  every 
day  to  right  and  left,  carrying  a  morsel  of  straw,  a 
pinch  of  moss,  a  hair  from  a  horse's  tail,  or  a  tuft  of 
wool  caught  in  a  bush.  They  intermingle  these  ma- 
terials, making  the  framework  of  the  construction 
with  the  coarser  pieces,  keeping  those  that  are 
warmer  and  more  delicate  for  the  interior.  These 
nests,  attached  to  a  fork  in  a  branch  or  in  a  shrub, 
hidden  in  the  depth  of  a  thicket,  are  little  master- 


1630  THE    STORY   OF   THE    UNIVERSE 

pieces  of  skill  and  patience.  To  describe  every  form 
and  every  method  would  fill  a  volume.  But  I  can  not 
pass  in  silence  those  which  reveal  a  science  sure  of 
itself,  and  which  are  not  very  inferior  to  what  man 
can  do  in  this  line.  The  Lithuanian  titmouse 
(^githalus  pendulinus),  whose  works  have  been 
well  described  by  Baldamus,  lives  in  the  marshes  in 
the  midst  of  reeds  and  willows  in  Poland,  Galicia, 
and  Hungary.  Its  nest,  which  resembles  none  met 
with  in  England,  is  always  suspended  above  the 
water,  two  or  three  metres  above  the  surface,  fixed 
to  a  willow  branch.  All  individuals  do  not  exhibit 
the  same  skill  in  fabricating  their  dwelling;  some  are 
more  careful  and  clever  than  others  who  are  less  ex- 
perienced. Some  also  are  obliged  by  circumstances 
to  hasten  their  work.  It  frequently  happens  that 
magpies  spoil  or  even  altogether  destroy  with  blows 
of  their  beaks  one  of  these  pretty  nests.  The  unfor- 
tunate couple  are  obliged  to  recommence  their  task, 
and  if  this  accident  happens  two  or  three  times  to 
the  same  household,  it  can  easily  be  imagined  that, 
discouraged  and  depressed  by  the  advancing  season, 
they  hasten  to  build  a  shelter  anyhow,  only  doing 
what  is  indispensable,  and  neglecting  perfection. 
However  this  may  be,  the  nests  which  are  properly 
finished  have  the  form  of  a  purse,  twenty  centimetres 
high  and  twelve  broad.  At  the  side  an  opening,  pro- 
longed by  a  passage  which  is  generally  horizontal, 
gives  access  to  the  interior.  Sometimes  another  open- 
ing is  found  without  any  passage.  Every  nest  in  the 
course  of  construction  possesses  this  second  entry,  but 
it  is  usually  filled  up  when  the  work  is  completed. 


DWELLINGS  1681 

When  the  bird  has  resolved  to  establish  its  retreat, 
it  first  chooses  a  hanging  branch  presenting  bifurca- 
tions which  can  be  utilized  as  a  rigid  frame  on  which 
to  weave  the  lateral  walls  of  the  habitation.  It  inter- 
crosses wool  and  goats'  hair  so  as  to  form  two  courses 
which  are  afterward  united  to  each  other  below,  and 
constitute  the  first  sketch  of  the  nest,  at  this  moment 
like  a  flat-bottomed  basket.  This  is  only  the  begin- 
ning. The  whole  wall  is  reinforced  by  the  addition 
of  new  material.  The  architect  piles  up  down  from 
the  poplar  and  the  willow,  and  binds  it  all  together 
with  filaments  torn  from  the  bark  of  trees,  so  as  to 
make  a  whole  which  is  very  resistant.  Then  a  couch 
is  formed  by  heaping  up  wool  and  down  at  the  bot- 
tom of  the  nest. 

The  American  Baltimore  oriole,  also  called  the 
Baltimore  bird,  is  a  distinguished  weaver.  With 
strong  stalks  and  hemp  or  flax,  fastened  round  two 
forked  twigs  corresponding  to  the  proposed  width  of 
nest,  it  makes  a  very  delicate  sort  of  mat,  weaving 
into  it  quantities  of  loose  tow.  The  form  of  the  nest 
might  be  compared  to  that  of  a  ham;  it  is  attached  by 
the  narrow  portion  to  a  small  branch,  the  large  part 
being  below.  An  opening  exists  at  the  lower  end  of 
the  dwelling,  and  the  interior  is  carefully  lined  with 
soft  substances,  well  interwoven  with  the  outward 
netting,  and  it  is  finished  with  an  external  layer  of 
horse-hair,  while  the  whole  is  protected  from  sun 
and  rain  by  a  natural  canopy  of  leaves. 

The  rufous-necked  weaver  bird,  as  described  by 
Brehm,  shows  itself  equally  clever.  Its  nest  is  woven 
with  extreme  delicacy,  and  resembles  a  long-necked 


1632  THE   STORY   OF  THE   UNIVERSE 

decanter  hung  up  with  the  opening  below.  From 
the  bottom  of  the  decanter  a  strong  band  attaches  the 
whole  to  the  branch  of  a  tree.  The  yellow  weaver 
bird  of  Java,  as  described  by  Forbes,  constructs  very 
similar  retort-shaped  nests. 

These  birds  have  no  monopoly  of  these  careful 
dwellings;  a  considerable  number  of  genera  have 
carried  this  industry  to  the  same  degree  of  perfection. 

When  animals  apply  themselves  in  association  to 
any  work,  they  nearly  always  exhibit  in  it  a  marked 
superiority  over  neighboring  species  among  whom 
the  individuals  work  in  isolation.  The  construction 
of  dwellings  is  no  exception,  and  the  nests  of  the  so- 
ciable weaver  birds  of  South  Africa  are  the  best  con- 
structed that  can  be  found.  These  birds  live  together 
in  considerable  colonies;  the  members  of  an  associa- 
tion are  at  least  two  hundred  in  number,  and  some- 
times rise  to  five  hundred.  The  city  which  they  con- 
struct is  a  marvel  of  industry.  They  first  make  with 
grass  a  sloping  roof,  giving  it  the  form  of  a  mush- 
room or  an  open  umbrella,  and  they  place  it  in  such 
a  way  that  it  is  supported  by  the  trunk  of  a  tree  and 
one  or  two  of  the  branches.  This  thatch  is  prepared 
with  so  much  care  that  it  is  absolutely  impenetrable 
to  water.  Beneath  this  protecting  shelter  each  couple 
constructs  its  private  dwelling.  All  the  individual 
nests  have  their  openings  below,  and  they  are  so 
closely  pressed  against  one  another  that,  on  looking 
at  the  construction  from  beneath,  the  divisions  can 
not  be  seen.  One  only  perceives  a  surface  riddled 
with  holes  like  a  skimmer;  each  of  these  holes  is  the 
door  of  a  nest.  The  work  may  endure  for  several 


DWELLINGS  1633 

years;  as  long  as  there  is  room  beneath  the  roof  the 
young  form  pairs  near  their  cradle;  but  at  last,  as 
the  colony  continues  to  increase,  a  portion  emigrate 
to  found  a  new  town  on  another  tree  in  the  forest. 

The  industry  of  the  woven  dwelling  does  not  flour- 
ish among  mammals;  but  there  is  one  which  excels 
in  it.  This  is  the  dwarf  mouse  (Mus  minutus),  cer- 
tainly one  of  the  smallest  rodents.  It  generally  lives 
amid  reeds  and  rushes,  and  it  is  perhaps  this  circum- 
stance which  has  impelled  it  to  construct  an  aerial 
dwelling  for  its  young,  not  being  able  to  deposit  them 
on  the  damp  and  often  flooded  soil.  This  retreat  is 
not  used  in  every  season;  its  sole  object  is  for  bring- 
ing forth  the  young.  It  is  therefore  a  genuine  nest, 
not  only  by  the  manner  in  which  it  is  made,  but  by 
the  object  it  is  intended  to  serve.  The  nest  is  made 
with  as  much  delicacy  as  that  of  any  bird,  and  no 
other  mammal  except  man  is  capable  of  executing 
such  weaver's  work. 

There  are  birds  which  have  succeeded  in  solving 
a  remarkable  difficulty.  Sewing  seems  so  ingenious 
an  art  that  it  must  be  reserved  for  the  human  species 
alone.  Yet  the  tailor-bird,  the  Orthotomus  longi- 
cauda,  and  other  species  possess  the  elements  of  it. 
They  place  their  nests  in  a  large  leaf  which  they 
prepare  to  this  end.  With  their  beaks  they  pierce  two 
rows  of  holes  along  the  two  edges  of  the  leaf;  they 
then  pass  a  stout  thread  from  one  side  to  the  other 
alternately.  With  this  leaf,  at  first  flat,  they  form 
a  horn  in  which  they  weave  their  nest  with  cotton  or 
hair.  These  labors  of  weaving  and  sewing  are  pre- 
ceded by  the  spinning  of  the  thread.  The  bird  makes 


1634  THE   STORY   OF  THE   UNIVERSE 

it  itself  by  twisting  in  its  beak  spiders'  webs,  bits  of 
cotton,  and  little  ends  of  wool.  Sykes  found  that  the 
threads  used  for  sewing  were  knotted  at  the  ends. 
It  is  impossible  not  to  admire  animals  who  have  skil- 
fully triumphed  over  all  the  obstacles  met  with  in  the 
course  of  these  complicated  operations. 

Certain  spiders,  while  they  do  not  actually  sew  in 
the  sense  that  they  perforate  the  leaves  they  use  to 
build  their  nest,  and  draw  the  thread  through  them, 
yet  subject  the  leaves  to  an  operation  which  can  not 
well  be  called  anything  else  but  sewing  it. 

Certain  wasps,  by  the  material  of  their  dwellings, 
approach  the  Japanese ;  they  build  with  paper.  This 
paper  or  cardboard  is  very  strong  and  supplies  a  solid 
support;  moreover,  being  a  bad  conductor  of  heat,  it 
contributes  to  maintain  an  equable  temperature 
within  the  nest.  The  constructions  of  these  insects, 
though  they  do  not  exhibit  the  geometric  arrange- 
ment of  those  of  bees,  are  not  less  interesting.  The  pa- 
per which  they  employ  is  manufactured  on  the  spot,  as 
the  walls  of  the  cells  develop.  Detritus  of  every  kind 
enters  into  its  preparation :  small  fragments  of  wood, 
sawdust,  etc. ;  anything  is  good.  These  Hymenoptera 
possess  no  organ  specially  adapted  to  aid  them;  it  is 
with  their  saliva  that  they  glue  this  dust  together  and 
make  of  it  a  substance  very  suitable  for  its  purpose. 
The  dwellings  often  reach  considerable  size,  yet  they 
are  always  begun  by  a  single  female,  who  does  all  the, 
work  without  help  until  the  moment  when  the  first 
eggs  come  out;  she  is  thus  furnished  with  workers 
capable  of  taking  a  share  in  her  task.  The  Vespa 
sylvestris  builds  a  paper  nest  of  this  kind,  hanging  to 


DWELLINGS  1635 

the  branch  of  a  tree,  like  a  great  gray  sphere  pro- 
longed to  a  blunt  neck.  The  hornet's  nest  is  similar 
in  construction. 

Gelatine  nests  are  made  by  certain  swallows  who 
nest  in  grottoes  or  cliffs  on  the  edge  of  the  sea.  After 
having  collected  from  the  water  a  gelatinous  sub- 
stance formed  either  of  the  spawn  of  fish  or  the  eggs 
of  mollusca,  they  carry  this  substance  on  to  a  per- 
pendicular wall,  and  apply  it  to  form  an  arc  of  a 
circle.  This  first  deposit  being  dry,  they  increase  it 
by  sticking  on  to  its  edge  a  new  deposit.  Gradually 
the  dwelling  takes  on  the  appearance  of  a  cup  and 
receives  the  workers'  eggs.  These  dwellings  are  the 
famous  swallows'  nests,  so  appreciated  by  the  epi- 
cures of  the  extreme  East,  which  are  edible  in  the 
same  way  as,  for  example,  caviare. 

Certain  animals,  whose  dwelling  participates  in 
the  nature  of  a  hollow  cavern,  make  additions  to  it 
which  claim  a  place  among  the  constructions  with 
which  we  are  now  occupied. 

The  Anthophora  parietina  is  in  this  group;  it  is 
a  small  bee  which  lives  in  liberty  in  our  climate.  As 
its  name  indicates,  it  prefers  to  frequent  the  walls  of 
old  buildings  and  finds  a  refuge  in  the  interstices,  hol- 
lowing out  the  mortar  half  disintegrated  by  time. 
The  entrance  to  the  dwelling  is  protected  by  a  tube 
curved  toward  the  bottom,  and  making  an  external 
prominence.  The  owner  comes  and  goes  by  this 
passage,  and  as  it  is  curved  toward  the  earth  the  in- 
terior is  protected  against  a  flow  of  rain,  while  at 
the  same  time  the  entry  is  rendered  more  difficult  for 
Melectes  and  Anthrax.  These  insects,  in  fact,  watch 


1636  THE   STORY   OF  THE   UNIVERSE 

the  departure  of  the  Anthophora  to  endeavor  to  pene- 
trate into  their  nests  and  lay  their  eggs  there.  The 
gallery  of  entry  and  exit  has  been  built  with  grains 
of  sand,  the  debris  produced  by  the  insect  in  work- 
ing. These  grains  of  sand  glued  together  form,  on 
drying,  a  very  resistant  wall. 

The  other  animals  of  which  I  have  to  speak  are 
genuine  masons,  who  prepare  their  mortar  by  tem- 
pering moistened  earth.  Every  one  has  seen  the  swal- 
low in  spring  working  at  its  nest  in  the  corner  of  a 
window.  It  usually  establishes  its  dwelling  in  an 
angle,  so  that  the  three  existing  walls  can  be  utilized, 
and  to  have  an  inclosed  space  there  is  need  only  to 
add  the  face.  It  usually  gives  to  this  the  form  of  a 
quarter  of  a  sphere,  and  begins  it  by  applying  earth 
more  or  less  mixed  with  chopped  hay  against  the 
walls  which  are  to  support  the  edifice.  At  the  sum- 
mit of  the  construction  a  hole  is  left  for  entry  and 
exit.  During  the  whole  of  its  sojourn  in  our  country 
the  swallow  uses  this  dwelling,  and  even  returns  to 
it  for  many  years  in  succession,  as  long  as  its  work 
will  support  the  attacks  of  time.  The  faithful  return 
of  these  birds  to  their  old  nest  has  been  many  times 
proved  by  attaching  ribbons  to  their  claws;  they  have 
always  returned  with  the  distinctive  mark. 

Besides  the  swallows,  birds  offer  us  several  types  of 
skilful  construction  with  tempered  earth. 

The  flamingo,  which  lives  in  marshes,  can  not 
place  its  eggs  on  the  earth  nor  in  the  trunks  of  trees, 
which  are  often  absent  from  its  domain.  It  builds  a 
cone  of  mud,  which  dries  and  becomes  very  resistant, 
and  it  prepares  at  the  summit  an  excavation  open  to 


DWELLINGS  1637 

the  air;  this  is  the  nest.  The  female  broods  by 
sitting  with  her  legs  hanging  over  the  sides  of  the 
hillock  on  which  her  little  family  prospers  above  the 
waters  and  the  damp  soil. 

A  perch  in  the  Danube  makes  a  dwelling  of  dried 
earth  in  the  form  of  an  elliptic  cupola,  and  prepares 
a  semicircular  opening  for  entry  and  exit. 

The  bird  which  shows  itself  the  most  skilful  mason 
is  probably  the  oven-bird  (Furnarius  rufus)  of 
Brazil  and  La  Plata.  Its  name  is  owing  to  the  form 
of  the  nest  which  it  constructs  for  brooding,  and 
which  has  the  appearance  of  an  oven.  It  is  very  skil- 
ful and  knows  how  to  build  a  dome  of  clay  without 
scaffolding,  which  is  not  altogether  easy.  Having 
chosen  for  the  site  of  its  labors  a  large  horizontal 
branch,  it  brings  to  it  a  number  of  little  clay  balls 
more  or  less  combined  with  vegetable  debris,  works 
them  all  together,  and  makes  a  very  uniform  floor, 
which  is  to  serve  as  a  platform  for  the  rest  of  the 
work.  When  this  is  done,  and  while  the  foundation 
is  drying,  the  bird  arranges  on  it  a  circular  border 
of  mortar  slightly  inclined  outward.  This  becomes 
hard ;  it  raises  it  by  a  new  application,  this  time  in- 
clined inward.  All  the  other  layers  which  will  be 
placed  above  this  will  also  be  inclined  toward  the  in- 
terior of  the  chamber.  As  the  structure  rises,  the 
circle  which  terminates  it  above  becomes  more  and 
more  narrow.  Soon  it  is  quite  small,  and  the  animal, 
closing  it  with  a  little  ball  of  clay,  finds  itself  in 
possession  of  a  well-made  dome.  Naturally  it  pre- 
pares an  entrance;  the  form  of  this  is  semicircular. 
But  this  is  not  all.  In  the  interior  it  arranges  two 


1638  THE   STORY   OF   THE   UNIVERSE 

partitions:  one  vertical,  the  other  horizontal,  sepa- 
rating off  a  small  chamber.  The  vertical  partition 
begins  at  one  of  the  edges  of  the  door,  so  that  the  air 
from  without  can  not  penetrate  directly  into  the 
dwelling,  which  is  thus  protected  against  extreme 
variations  of  temperature.  It  is  in  the  compartment 
thus  formed  that  the  female  lays  her  eggs  and 
broods,  after  having  taken  care  to  carpet  it  with  a 
thick  layer  of  small  herbs. 

The  musk-rats  of  Canada  live  in  colonies  on  the 
banks  of  streams  or  deep  lakes,  and  construct  dwell- 
ings which  are  very  well  arranged.  In  their  methods 
we  find  combined  the  woven  shelter  with  the  house 
of  built  earth.  Their  cabins  are  established  over  the 
highest  level  of  the  water  and  look  like  little  domes. 
In  building  them  the  animals  begin  by  placing  reeds 
in  the  earth;  these  they  interlace  and  weave  so  as  to 
form  a  sort  of  vertical  mat.  They  plaster  it  externally 
with  a  layer  of  mud,  which  is  mixed  by  means  of  the 
paws  and  smoothed  by  the  tail.  At  the  upper  part  of 
the  hut  the  reeds  are  not  pressed  together  or  covered 
with  earth,  so  that  the  air  may  be  renewed  in  the  in- 
terior. A  dwelling  of  this  kind,  intended  to  house  six 
or  eight  individuals  who  have  combined  to  build  it, 
may  measure  up  to  sixty-five  centimetres  in  diameter. 
There  is  no  door  directly  opening  on  to  the  ground. 
A  subterranean  gallery  starts  from  the  floor  and 
opens  out  beneath  the  water.  It  presents  secondary 
branches,  some  horizontal,  through  which  the  ani- 
mal goes  in  search  of  roots  for  food,  while  others 
'descend  vertically  to  pits  specially  reserved  for  the 
disposal  of  ordure. 


*  *' 


Fairy  Flies  (magnified  30  diameters) 

Caraphracius  Cinctus,  Male  ;    2,  3,  same,  Female ;    4,  5,  Mymar  Pulchellus,  Male 
and  Female  ;  6,  7,  Prestwichia  Aquatica,  Female  and  Male.-  8,  Cosmo- 
como  Fumipennis,  Female 


DWELLINGS  1639 

But  it  is,  above  all,  the  beaver  (Castor  fibre)  who 
exhibits  the  highest  qualities  as  an  engineer  and 
mason.  This  industrious  and  sagacious  rodent  is  well 
adapted  to  inconvenience  the  partisans  of  instinct  as 
an  entity,  apart  from  intelligence,  which  renders 
animals  similar  to  machines  and  impels  them  to 
effect  associated  acts,  without  themselves  being  able 
to  understand  them,  and  with  a  fatality  and  determi- 
nation from  which  they  can  under  no  circumstance 
escape. 

The  civilization  of  the  beaver  has  perished  in  the 
presence  of  man's  civilization,  or  rather  of  his  per- 
secution. In  regions  where  it  is  tracked  and  dis- 
turbed by  man  the  beaver  lives  in  couples,  and  is  con- 
tent to  hollow  out  a  burrow  like  the  otter's,  instead 
of  showing  its  consummate  art.  It  merely  vegetates, 
fleeing  from  enemies  who  are  too  strong  for  it,  and 
depriving  itself  of  a  dangerous  comfort.  But  when 
the  security  of  solitude  permits  these  animals  to 
unite  in  societies,  and  to  possess,  without  too  much 
fear,  a  pond  or  a  stream,  they  then  exhibit  all  their 
industry. 

They  build  very  well  arranged  dwellings,  al- 
though at  first  sight  they  look  like  mere  piles  of 
twigs,  branches,  and  logs  heaped  in  disorder  on  a 
small  dome  of  mud.  At  the  edge  of  a  pond  each 
raises  his  own  lodge,  and  there  is  no  work  by  the 
colony  in  common.  If,  however,  there  is  a  question 
of  inhabiting  the  bank  of  a  shallow  stream,  certain 
preliminary  works  become  necessary.  The  rodents 
establish  a  dam,  so  that  they  may  possess  a  large 
sheet  of  water  which  may  be  of  fair  depth,  and  above 

p  IV. 


1640  THE  STORY  OF  THE   UNIVERSE 

all  constant,  not  at  the  mercy  of  the  rise  and  fall  of 
the  stream.  A  sudden  and  excessive  flood  is  the  one 
danger  likely  to  prove  fatal  to  these  dikes;  but  even 
our  own  constructions  are  threatened  under  such 
circumstances. 

When  the  beavers,  tempted  by  abundance  of 
willows  and  poplars,  of  which  they  eat  the  bark  and 
utilize  the  wood  in  construction,  have  chosen  a  site, 
and  have  decided  to  establish  a  village  on  the  edge  of 
the  water,  there  are  several  labors  to  be  successively 
accomplished.  Their  first  desire  is  to  be  in  possession 
of  a  large  number  of  felled  trunks  of  trees.  To  ob- 
tain them  they  scatter  themselves  in  the  forest  bor- 
dering the  stream  and  attack  saplings  of  from  twenty 
to  thirty  centimetres  in  diameter.  They  are  equipped 
for  this  purpose.  With  their  powerful  incisors, 
worked  by  strong  jaws,  they  can  soon  gnaw  through 
a  tree  of  this  size.  But  they  are  capable  of  attack- 
ing trees  even  more  than  100  cm.  in  diameter 
and  some  forty  metres  in  height  with  great  skill 
and  adaptability;  "no  better  work  could  be  accom- 
plished by  a  most  highly  finished  steel  cutting  tool, 
wielded  by  a  muscular  human  arm"  (Martin) .  They 
operate  seated  on  their  hindquarters,  and  they  make 
their  incision  in  the  wood  with  a  feather  edge.  It 
was  once  supposed  that  they  always  take  care  so  to 
direct  their  wood-cutting  task  that  the  tree  may  fall 
on  the  water-side,  but  this  is  by  no  means  the  case, 
and  appears  to  be  simply  due,  as  Martin  points  out, 
to  the  fact  that  trees  by  the  water-side  usually  slope 
toward  the  water.  The  austerity  of  labor  alter- 
nates, it  may  be  added,  with  the  pleasures  of  the 


DWELLINGS  lt>Al 

table.     From  time  to  time  the  beavers  remove  the 
bark  of  the  fallen  trees   and  feed  on  it. 

Mr.  Lewis  H.  Morgan  studied  the  American  bea- 
ver with  great  care  and  thoroughness,  more  espe- 
cially on  the  southwest  shore  of  Lake  Superior;  he 
devotes  fifty  pages  to  the  dams,  and  it  is  worth  while 
to  quote  his  preliminary  remarks  regarding  them: 
uThe  dam  is  the  principal  structure  of  the  beaver. 
It  is  also  the  most  important  of  his  erections,  as  it  is 
the  most  extensive,  and  because  its  production  and 
preservation  could  only  be  accomplished  by  patient 
and  long-continued  labor.  In  point  of  time,  also,  it 
precedes  the  lodge,  since  the  floor  of  the  latter  and 
the  entrances  to  its  chamber  are  constructed  with 
reference  to  the  level  of  the  water  in  the  pond.  The 
object  of  the  dam  is  the  formation  of  an  artificial 
pond,  the  principal  use  of  which  is  the  refuge  it 
affords  to  them  when  assailed,  and  the  water-con- 
nection it  gives  to  their  lodges  and  to  their  burrows 
in  the  banks.  Hence,  as  the  level  of  the  pond  must, 
in  all  cases,  rise  from  one  to  two  feet  above  these 
entrances  for  the  protection  of  the  animal  from  pur- 
suit and  capture,  the  surface-level  of  the  pond  must, 
to  a  greater  or  less  extent,  be  subject  to  their  imme- 
diate control.  As  the  dam  is  not  an  absolute  neces- 
sity to  the  beaver  for  the  maintenance  of  his  life,  his 
normal  habitation  being  rather  natural  ponds  and 
rivers,  and  burrows  in  their  banks,  it  is  in  itself  con- 
sidered a  remarkable  fact  that  he  should  have  vol- 
untarily transferred  himself,  by  means  of  dams  and 
ponds  of  his  own  construction,  from  a  natural  to  an 
artificial  mode  of  life. 


1642  THE  STORY  OF  THE   UNIVERSE 

"Some  of  these  dams  are  so  extensive  as  to  forbid 
the  supposition  that  they  were  the  exclusive  work  of 
a  single  pair  or  of  a  single  family  of  beavers;  but  it 
does  not  follow,  as  has  very  generally  been  supposed, 
that  several  families,  or  a  colony,  unite  for  the  joint 
construction  of  a  dam.  After  careful  examination  of 
some  hundreds  of  these  structures,  and  of  the  lodges 
and  burrows  attached  to  many  of  them,  I  am  alto- 
gether satisfied  that  the  larger  dams  were  not  the 
joint  product  of  the  labor  of  large  numbers  of 
beavers  working  together,  and  brought  thus  to  im- 
mediate completion;  but,  on  the  contrary,  that  they 
arose  from  small  beginnings,  and  were  built  upon 
year  after  year,  until  they  finally  reached  that  size 
which  exhausted  the  capabilities  of  the  location; 
after  which  they  were  maintained  for  centuries,  at 
the  ascertained  standard,  by  constant  repairs.  So  far 
as  my  observations  have  enabled  me  to  form  an 
opinion,  I  think  they  were  usually,  if  not  invariably, 
commenced  by  a  single  pair,  or  a  single  family  of 
beavers;  and  that  when,  in  the  course  of  time,  by 
the  gradual  increase  of  the  dam,  the  pond  had  be- 
come sufficiently  enlarged  to  accommodate  more 
families  than  one,  other  families  took  up  their  resi- 
dence upon  it,  and  afterward  contributed  by  their 
labor  to  its  maintenance.  There  is  no  satisfactory 
evidence  that  the  American  beavers  either  live  or 
work  in  colonies;  and  if  some  such  cases  have  been 
observed,  it  will  either  be  found  to  be  an  exception 
to  the  general  rule,  or  in  consequence  of  the  sudden 
destruction  of  a  work  upon  the  maintenance  of  which 
a  number  of  families  were  at  the  time  depending. 


DWELLINGS  1643 

"The  great  age  of  the  larger  dams  is  shown  by; 
their  size,  by  the  large  amount  of  solid  materials 
they  contain,  and  by  the  destruction  of  the  primitive 
forest  within  the  area  of  the  ponds ;  and  also  by  the 
extent  of  the  beaver-meadows  along  the  margins  of 
the  streams  where  dams  are  maintained,  and  by  the 
hummocks  formed  upon  them  by  and  through  the 
annual  growth  and  decay  of  vegetation  in  separate 
hills.  These  meadows  were  undoubtedly  covered 
with  trees  adapted  to  a  wet  soil  when  the  dams  were 
constructed.  It  must  have  required  long  periods  of 
time  to  destroy  every  vestige  of  the  ancient  forest  by 
the  increased  saturation  of  the  earth,  accompanied 
with  occasional  overflows  from  the  streams.  The 
evidence  from  these  and  other  sources  tends  to  show 
that  these  dams  have  existed  in  the  same  places  for 
hundreds  and  thousands  of  years,  and  that  they  have 
been  maintained  by  a  system  of  continuous  repairs. 

"At  the  place  selected  for  the  construction  of  a 
dam,  the  ground  is  usually  firm  and  often  stony,  and 
when  across  the  channel  of  a  flowing  stream,  a  hard 
rather  than  a  soft  bottom  is  preferred.  Such  places 
are  necessarily  unfavorable  for  the  insertion  of  stakes 
in  the  ground,  if  such  were,  in  fact,  their  practice  in 
building  dams.  The  theory  upon  which  beaver-dams 
are  constructed  is  perfectly  simple,  and  involves  no 
such  necessity.  Soft  earth,  intermixed  with  vegetable 
fibre,  is  used  to  form  an  embankment,  with  sticks, 
brush,  and  poles  imbedded  within  these  materials  to 
bind  them  together,  and  to  impart  to  them  the 
requisite  solidity  to  resist  the  effects  both  of  pressure 
and  of  saturation.  Small  sticks  and  brush  are  used, 


1644  THE  STORY  OF  THE   UNIVERSE 

in  the  first  instance,  with  mud  and  earth  and  stones 
for  down-weight.  Consequently  these  dams  are  ex- 
tremely rude  at  their  commencement,  and  they  do 
not  attain  their  remarkably  artistic  appearance  until 
after  they  have  been  raised  to  a  considerable  height, 
and  have  been  maintained,  by  a  system  of  annual 
repairs,  for  a  number  of  years."* 

There  are  two  different  kinds  of  beaver-dams, 
although  they  are  both  constructed  on  the  same 
principle.  One,  the  stick-dam,  consists  of  interlaced 
stick  and  pole  work  below,  with  an  embankment  of 
earth  raised  with  the  same  material  upon  the  upper 
or  water  face.  This  is  usually  found  in  brooks  or 
large  streams  with  ill-defined  banks.  The  other,  the 
solid-bank  dam,  is  not  so  common  nor  so  interesting, 
and  is  usually  found  on  those  parts  of  the  same 
stream  where  the  banks  are  well  defined,  the  channel 
deep,  and  the  current  uniform.  In  this  kind  the 
earth  and  mud  entirely  buries  the  sticks  and  poles, 
giving  the  whole  a  solid  appearance.  In  the  first 
kind  the  surplus  water  percolates  through  the  dam 
along  its  entire  length,  while  in  the  second  it  is  dis- 
charged through  a  single  opening  in  the  crest  formed 
for  that  purpose. 

The  materials  being  prepared  in  the  manner  I  have 
previously  described,  the  animals  make  ready  to 
establish  their  dike.  They  intermix  their  materials 
— driftwood,  green  willows,  birch,  poplars,  etc. — in 
the  bed  of  the  river,  with  mud  and  stones,  so  making 
a  solid  bank,  capable  of  resisting  a  great  force  of 

*  L.  H.  Morgan,  The  American  Beaver  and  his  Works,  Phil- 
adelphia, 1868,  pp.  82-86. 


DWELLINGS  1645 

water;  sometimes  the  trees  will  shoot  up  forming 
a  hedge.  The  dam  has  a  thickness  of  from  three  to 
four  metres  at  the  base,  and  about  sixty  centimetres 
at  the  upper  part.  The  wall  facing  up-stream  is 
sloping,  that  directed  down-stream  is  vertical ;  this  is 
the  best  arrangement  for  supporting  the  pressure  of 
the  mass  of  water  which  is  thus  expended  on  an 
inclined  surface.  In  certain  cases  beavers  carry 
hydraulic  science  still  further.  If  the  course  of  the 
water  is  not  very  rapid,  they  generally  make  an 
almost  straight  dike,  perpendicular  to  the  two  banks, 
as  this  is  then  sufficient;  but  if  the  current  is  strong, 
they  curve  it  so  that  the  convexity  is  turned  up- 
stream. In  this  way  it  is  much  better  fitted  to  resist. 
Thus  they  do  not  always  act  in  the  same  way,  but 
arrange  their  actions  so  as  to  adapt  them  to  the  con- 
ditions of  the  environment. 

The  embankment  being  completed,  the  animals 
construct  their  lodges.  Fragments  of  wood,  deprived 
of  the  bark,  are  arranged  and  united  by  clay  or  mud 
which  the  beavers  take  from  the  river-side,  transport, 
mix,  and  work  with  their  forepaws.  During  a  single 
night  they  can  collect  as  much  mud  at  their  houses  as 
amounts  to  some  thousands  of  their  small  handfuls. 
They  thus  plaster  their  houses  with  mud  every 
autumn ;  in  the  winter  this  freezes  as  hard  as  a  stone 
and  protects  them  from  enemies.  These  cabins  form 
domes  from  three  to  four  metres  in  diameter  at  the 
base,  and  from  two  to  two  and  a  half  metres  in 
height.  The  floor  is  on  a  level  with  the  surface  of 
the  artificial  pond.  A  passage  sinks  in  the  earth  and 
opens  about  one  and  a  half  metres  below  the  level  of 


1646  THE   STORY  OF  THE   UNIVERSE 

the  water,  so  that  it  can  not  be  closed  up  by  ice  during 
the  severe  winters  of  these  regions. 

Within,  near  the  entry,  the  beavers  form,  with  the 
aid  of  a  partition,  a  special  compartment  to  serve  as  a 
storehouse,  and  they  there  pile  up  enormous  heaps  of 
nenuphar  roots  as  provisions  for  the  days  when  ice 
and  snow  will  prevent  them  from  barking  the  young 
trunks. 

A  dwelling  of  this  kind  may  last  for  three  or  four 
years,  and  the  animal  here  tranquilly  enjoys  the  fruits 
of  its  industry  as  long  as  man  fails  to  discover  the 
retreat;  for  the  beaver  can  escape  by  swimming  from 
all  carnivorous  animals  excepting,  perhaps,  the 
otter.  During  the  floods  the  level  of  the  water  nearly 
reaches  the  hut;  if  the  inundation  is  prolonged  and 
the  animal  runs  the  risk  of  being  asphyxiated  beneath 
his  dome,  it  breaks  through  the  upper  part  with  its 
teeth  and  escapes.  When  the  water  returns  to  its  bed 
the  beaver  comes  back,  makes  the  necessary  repairs, 
and  resumes  the  usual  peaceful  course  of  its  life. 

We  have  thus  seen,  from  a  shapeless  hole  to  these 
complex  dwellings,  every  possible  stage;  we  have 
found  among  animals  the  rudiments  of  the  different 
human  habitations,  certain  animals,  indeed,  having 
arrived  at  a  degree  of  civilization  which  man  him- 
self in  some  countries  has  not  yet  surpassed,  or  even 
indeed  yet  attained. 


MAN'S   FIRST  APPEARANCE  1647 


MAN'S   FIRST   APPEARANCE 
— BOYD  DAWKINS 

THE  characteristics  of  the  evolution  of  living 
forms  may  be  summed  up  as  follows: 

I.  Eocene — in  which  the  placental  mammals  now 
on  earth  were  represented  by  allied  forms  belonging 
to  existing  orders  and  families.     Living  orders  and 
families  appear;  lemurs  (Lemuridae)  in  Europe  and 
North  America.    Evidence  found  in  fresh-water  and 
marine  strata;  lignites. 

II.  Miocene — in  which  the  alliance  between  liv- 
ing and  placental  mammals  is  more  close  than  before. 
Living  genera  appear;  apes  (Simiadae)   in  Europe 
and   North   America.     Evidence — fresh-water   and 
marine  strata;  volcanic  debris  (Auvergne)  ;  lignites. 

III.  Pliocene — in  which  living  species  of  placen- 
tal mammals  appear.     Living  species  appear;  apes 
(Simiadae)  in  Southern  Europe.    Evidence  found  in 
fresh-water  and  marine  strata;  volcanic  debris  (Au- 
vergne). 

IV.  Pleistocene — in  which  living  species  of  pla- 
cental mammals  are  more  abundant  than  the  extinct. 
Man  appears;  Anthropidae;  the  palaeolithic  hunter; 
living  species   abundant.      Evidence — refuse-heaps, 
contents  of  caves,  river  deposits,  submarine  forests, 
bowlder  clay,  moraines,  marine  sands,  and  shingle. 

V.  Prehistoric — in  which   domestic  animals   and 
cultured   fruits   appear.     Man   abundant,   domestic 
animals,  cultivated  fruits,  spinning,  weaving,  pottery- 
making,  mining,  commerce;  the  neolithic,  bronze, 


1648  THE   STORY   OF  THE   UNIVERSE 

and  iron  stages  of  culture.  Evidence — camps,  habi- 
tations, tombs,  refuse-heaps,  surface  accumulation, 
caves,  alluvia,  peat  bogs,  submarine  forests,  raised 
beaches. 

VI.  Historic — in  which  the  events  are  recorded  in 
history.  Evidence — documents,  refuse-heaps,  caves, 
tombs. 

The  orders,  families,  genera,  and  species  in  the 
above  summary,  when  traced  forward  in  time,  fall 
into  the  shape  of  a  genealogical  tree,  with  its  trunk 
hidden  in  the  secondary  period,  and  its  branchlets 
(the  living  species)  passing  upward  from  the  Plio- 
cene, a  tree  of  life  with  living  Mammalia  for  its 
fruits  and  foliage.  Were  the  extinct  species  taken 
into  account,  it  would  be  seen  that  they  fill  up  the 
intervals  separating  one  living  form  from  another, 
and  that  they  too  grow  more  and  more  like  the  living 
forms  as  they  approach  nearer  to  the  present  day. 
It  must  be  remembered  that  in  the  above  definitions 
the  fossil  marsupials  are  purposely  ignored,  because 
they  began  their  specialization  in  the  secondary  pe- 
riod, and  had  arrived  in  the  Eocene  at  the  stage  which 
is  marked  by  the  presence  of  living  genus — the 
opossum  (Didelphys). 

It  will  be  seen  that  our  inquiry  into  the  antiquity 
of  man  is  limited  to  the  last  four  of  the  divisions. 
The  most  specialized  of  all  animals  can  not  be  looked 
for  until  the  higher  Mammalia  by  which  he  is  sur- 
rounded were  alive.  We  can  not  imagine  him  in  the 
Eocene  age,  at  a  time  when  animal  life  was  not  suffi- 
ciently differentiated  to  present  us  with  any  living 
genera  of  placental  mammals.  Nor  is  there  any 


MAN'S   FIRST  APPEARANCE  1649 

probability  of  his  having  appeared  on  the  earth  in 
the  Miocene,  because  of  the  absence  of  higher  placen- 
tal  mammals  belonging  to  living  species.  It  is  most 
unlikely  that  man  should  have  belonged  to  a  fauna 
in  which  no  other  living  species  of  mammal  was 
present.  He  belongs  to  a  more  advanced  stage  of 
evolution  than  the  mid-Miocene  of  Thenay.  Up  to 
this  time  the  evolution  of  the  animal  kingdom  had 
advanced  no  further  than  the  Simiadae  in  the  direc- 
tion of  man;  and  the  apes  then  haunting  the  forests 
of  Italy,  France,  and  Germany  represent  the  highest 
type  of  those  on  earth. 

We  may  also  look  at  the  question  from  another 
point  of  view.  If  man  were  upon  the  earth  in  the 
Miocene  age,  it  is  incredible  that  he  should  not  have 
become  something  else  in  the  long  lapse  of  ages,  and 
during  the  changes  in  the  condition  of  life,  by  which 
all  the  Miocene  land  Mammalia  have  been  so  pro- 
foundly affected  that  they  have  been  either  extermi- 
nated or  have  assumed  new  forms.  Nor  in  the  suc- 
ceeding Pliocene  age  can  we  expect  to  find  man  upon 
the  earth,  because  of  the  very  few  living  species  of 
placental  mammals  then  alive.  It  is  not  until  we  ar- 
rive at  the  succeeding  stage,  or  the  Pleistocene,  when 
living  species  of  Mammalia  began  to  abound,  that 
we  meet  with  indisputable  traces  of  the  presence  of 
man  on  the  earth.  The  rudely  chipped  implements 
of  the  River-drift  hunter  lie  scattered  through  the 
late  Pleistocene  river  deposits  in  southern  and  east- 
ern England  in  enormous  abundance,  and  as  a  rule 
in  association  with  the  remains  of  animals  of  Arctic 
and  of  warm  habit,  as  well  as  some  one  or  other  of  the 


1650  THE   STORY   OF  THE   UNIVERSE 

extinct  species  of  reindeer  and  hippopotamus  along 
with  mammoth  and  woolly  rhinoceros. 

The  geographical  change  in  Northern  Europe  at 
the  close  of  the  forest-bed  age  was  very  great.  The 
forest  of  the  North  Sea  sank  beneath  the  waves,  and 
Britain  was  depressed  to  a  depth  of  no  less  than  2,300 
feet  in  the  Welsh  Mountains,  and  was  reduced  to  an 
archipelago  of  islands,  composed  of  what  are  now  the 
higher  lands.  The  area  of  the  English  Channel  was 
also  depressed,  and  the  "silver  streak"  was  wider  than 
it  is  now,  as  is  proved  by  the  raised  beach  at  Brighton, 
at  Brackelsham,  and  elsewhere,  which  marks  the  sea- 
line  of  the  largest  island  of  the  archipelago,  the 
Southern  Island,  as  it  may  be  termed,  the  northern 
shores  of  which  extended  along  a  line  passing  from 
Bristol  to  London.  The  northern  shore  of  the  Con- 
tinent at  this  time  extended  eastward  from  Abbe- 
ville, north  of  the  Erzgebirge,  through  Saxony  and 
Poland,  into  the  middle  of  Russia,  Scandinavia  being 
an  island  from  which  the  glaciers  descended  into  the 
sea.  This  geographical  change  was  accompanied  by 
a  corresponding  change  in  climate.  Glaciers  de- 
scended from  the  higher  mountains  to  the  sea  level, 
and  icebergs,  melting  as  they  passed  southward,  de- 
posited their  burdens  of  clay  and  sand  which  occupy 
such  a  wide  area  in  the  portions  then  submerged  of 
Britain  and  the  Continent.  This  depression  was  fol- 
lowed by  a  re-elevation,  by  which  the  British  Isles, 
a  part  of  the  Continent,  all  the  large  tract  of  country 
within  the  loo-fathom  line,  again  became  the  feed- 
ing-grounds of  the  late  Pleistocene  mammalia. 

An  appeal  to  the  animals  associated  with  the  River- 


MAN'S   FIRST  APPEARANCE  1651 

drift  implements  will^not  help  us  to  fix  the  exact  re- 
lation of  man  to  these  changes,  because  they  were  in 
Britain  before  as  well  as  after  the  submergence,  and 
were  living  throughout  in  those  parts  of  Europe 
which  were  not  submerged.  It  can  only  be  done  in 
areas  where  the  submergence  is  clearly  defined.  At 
Salisbury,  for  instance,  the  River-drift  hunter  may 
have  lived  either  before,  during,  or  after  the  south- 
ern counties  became  an  island.  When,  however,  he 
hunted  the  woolly  and  leptorhine  rhinoceros,  the 
mammoth,  and  the  horse,  in  the  neighborhood  of 
Brighton,  he  looked  down  upon  a  broad  expanse  of 
sea,  in  the  spring  flecked  with  small  icebergs  such  as 
those  which  dropped  their  burdens  in  Brackelsham 
Bay.  At  Abbeville,  too,  he  hunted  the  mammoth, 
reindeer,  and  horse  down  to  the  mouth  of  the  Somme 
on  the  shore  of  the  glacial  sea.  The  evidence  is 
equally  clear  that  the  River-drift  hunter  followed  the 
chase  in  Britain  after  it  had  emerged  from  beneath 
the  waters  of  the  glacial  sea,  from  the  fact  that  the 
river  deposits  in  which  his  implements  occur  either 
rest  upon  the  glacial  clays,  or  are  composed  of  frag- 
ments derived  from  them,  as  in  the  oft-quoted  case  of 
Hoxne  and  Bedford.  Further,  it  is  very  probable 
that  he  may  have  wandered  close  up  to  the  edge  of  the 
glaciers  then  covering  the  higher  hills  of  Wales  and 
the  Pennine  chain.  The  severity  of  the  climate  in 
winter  at  this  time  in  Britain  is  proved,  not  merely 
by  the  presence  of  the  Arctic  animals,  but  by  the  nu- 
merous ice-borne  blocks  in  the  river  gravels  dropped 
in  the  spring  after  the  break-up  of  the  frosts. 

The  River-drift  man  is  proved,  by  the  implements 


1652  THE  STORY  OF  THE   UNIVERSE 

which  he  left  behind,  to  have  wandered  over  the 
whole  of  France,  and  to  have  hunted  the  same  ani- 
mals in  the  valley  of  the  Loire  and  the  Garrone,  as 
in  the  valley  of  the  Thames.  In  the  Iberian  penin- 
sula he  was  also  a  contemporary  of  the  African  ele- 
phant, the  mammoth,  and  the  straight-tusked  ele- 
phant, and  he  occupied  the  neighborhood  both  of 
Madrid  and  Lisbon.  He  also  ranged  over  Italy, 
leaving  traces  of  his  presence  in  the  Abruzzo,  and  in 
Greece  he  was  a  contemporary  of  the  extinct  pygmy 
hippopotamus  (H.  Pentlandi).  South  of  the  Med- 
iterranean his  implements  have  been  met  with  in 
Oran,  and  near  Kolea  in  Algeria,  and  in  Egypt  in 
several  localities.  At  Luxor  they  have  been  discov- 
ered by  General  Pitt-Rivers  in  the  breccia,  out  of 
which  are  hewn  the  tombs  of  the  kings.  In  Palestine, 
they  have  been  obtained  by  the  Abbe  Richard  be- 
tween Mount  Tabor  and  the  Sea  of  Tiberias;  and 
by  Mr.  Stopes  between  Jerusalem  and  Bethlehem. 
Throughout  this  wide  area  the  implements,  for  the 
most  part  of  flint  or  of  quartzite,  are  of  the  same  rude 
types,  and  there  is  no  difference  to  be  noted  between 
the  hatchets  found  in  the  caves  of  Cresswell  in  Derby- 
shire and  those  of  Thebes,  or  between  those  of  the 
valley  of  the  Somme  and  those  of  Palestine.  The 
River-drift  hunter  ranged  over  the  Indian  peninsula 
from  Madras  as  far  north  as  the  valley  of  the  Ner- 
budda.  Here  we  find  him  forming  part  of  a  fauna  in 
which  are  species  now  living  in  India,  such  as  the 
Indian  rhinoceros  and  the  arnee,  and  extinct  types 
of  oxen  and  elephants.  There  are  two  extinct  hip- 
popotami in  the  rivers,  and  living  gavials,  turtles,  and 


MAN'S   FIRST  APPEARANCE  1653 

tortoises.  It  is  plain,  therefore,  that  at  this  time 
the  fauna  of  India  stood  in  the  same  relation  to  the 
present  fauna  as  the  European  fauna  of  the  late 
Pleistocene  does  to  that  now  living  in  Europe.  In 
both  there  was  a  familiar  association  of  extinct  and 
living  forms,  from  both  the  genus  hippopotamus  has 
disappeared  in  the  lapse  of  time,  and  in  both  man 
forms  the  central  figure. 

We  are  led  from  the  region  of  tropical  India  to 
the  banks  of  the  Delaware,  in  New  Jersey,  by  the 
recent  discoveries  of  Dr.  C.  C.  Abbott.  Here,  too, 
living  and  extinct  species  are  found  side  by  side. 

Thus  in  our  survey  of  the  group  of  animals  sur- 
rounding man  when  he  first  appeared  in  Europe,  In- 
dia, and  North  America,  we  see  that  in  all  three  re- 
gions, so  widely  removed  from  each  other,  the  animal 
life  was  in  the  same  stage  of  evolution,  and  "the  old 
order"  was  yielding  "place  unto  the  new."  The 
River-drift  man  is  proved  by  his  surroundings  to  be- 
long to  the  Pleistocene  age  in  all  three.  The  evidence 
of  Palaeolithic  man  in  South  Africa  seems  to  me 
unsatisfactory,  because  the  age  of  the  deposits 
in  which  the  implements  are  found  has  not  been 
decided. 

The  identity  of  the  implements  of  the  River-drift 
hunter  proves  that  he  was  in  the  same  rude  state  of 
civilization,  if  it  can  be  called  civilization,  in  the  Old 
and  New  Worlds,  when  the  hands  of  the  geological 
clock  pointed  to  the  same  hour.  It  is  not  a  little 
strange  that  his  mode  of  life  should  have  been  the 
same  in  the  forests  to  the  north  and  south  of  the  Med- 
iterranean, in  Palestine,  in  the  tropical  forests  of 


1654  THE  STORY  OF  THE   UNIVERSE 

India,  and  on  the  western  shore  of  the  Atlantic.  The 
hunter  of  the  reindeer  in  the  valley  of  the  Delaware 
was  to  all  intents  and  purposes  the  same  sort  of  savage 
as  the  hunter  of  the  reindeer  on  the  banks  of  the 
Wiley  or  of  the  Solent. 

It  does  not,  however,  follow  that  this  identity  of 
implements  implies  that  the  same  race  of  men  were 
spread  over  this  vast  tract.  It  points  rather  to  a  pri- 
meval condition  of  savagery  from  which  mankind 
has  emerged  in  the  long  ages  which  separate  it  from 
our  own  time.  It  may  further  be  inferred,  from  his 
widespread  range,  that  the  River-drift  man  (assum- 
ing that  mankind  sprang  from  one  centre)  must  have 
inhabited  the  earth  for  a  long  time,  and  that  his  dis- 
persal took  place  before  the  glacial  submergence  and 
the  lowering  of  the  temperature  in  Northern  Europe, 
Asia,  and  America.  It  is  not  reasonable  to  suppose 
that  the  Straits  of  Behring  would  have  offered  a  free 
passage,  either  to  the  River-drift  man  from  Asia  to 
America,  or  to  American  animals  from  America  to 
Europe,  or  vice  versa,  while  there  was  a  vast  barrier 
of  ice  or  of  sea,  or  of  both,  in  the  high  northern  lati- 
tudes. I  therefore  feel  inclined  to  view  the  River- 
drift  man  as  having  invaded  Europe  in  pre-glacial 
time  along  with  the  other  living  species  which  then 
appeared.  The  evidence,  as  I  have  already  pointed 
out,  is  conclusive  that  he  was  also  glacial  and  post- 
glacial. 

In  all  probability,  the  birthplace  of  man  was  in 
a  warm,  if  not  a  tropical,  region  of  Asia — "in  a  gar- 
den of  Eden";  and  from  this  the  River-drift  man 
found  his  way  into  those  regions  where  his  imple- 


MAN'S  FIRST  APPEARANCE  1655 

ments  occur.  In  India,  he  was  a  member  of  a  tropi- 
cal fauna,  and  his  distribution  in  Europe  and  along 
the  shores  of  the  Mediterranean  proves  him  to  have 
belonged  either  to  the  temperate  or  the  southern 
fauna  in  those  regions.  It  will  naturally  be  asked, 
To  what  race  can  the  River-drift  man  be  referred? 
The  question,  in  my  opinion,  can  not  be  answered  in 
the  present  stage  of  the  inquiry,  because  the  few 
fragments  of  human  bones  discovered  along  with 
the  implements  are  too  imperfect  to  afford  any  clew. 
Nor  can  we  measure  the  interval  in  terms  of  years 
which  separates  the  River-drift  man  from  the  present 
day,  either  by  assuming  that  the  glacial  period  was 
due  to  astronomical  causes,  and  then  proceeding  to 
calculate  the  time  necessary  for  them  to  produce 
their  result,  or  by  an  appeal  to  the  erosion  of  valleys, 
or  the  retrocession  of  waterfalls.  The  interval  must, 
however,  have  been  very  great  to  allow  of  the  changes 
in  geography  and  climate,  and  the  distribution  of 
animals  which  has  taken  place — the  succession  of 
races,  and  the  development  of  civilization  before 
history  began.  Standing  before  the  rock-hewn  tombs 
of  the  kings  at  Luxor,  we  may  realize  the  impossi- 
bility of  fixing  the  time  when  the  River-drift  hunter 
lived  in  the  side  of  the  ancient  Thebes,  or  of  meas- 
uring the  lapse  of  time  between  his  days  and  the 
splendor  of  the  civilization  of  Egypt.  In  this  in- 
quiry I  have  purposely  omitted  all  reference  to  the 
successor  of  the  River-drift  man  in  Europe — the 
Cave  man — who  was  in  a  higher  stage  of  the  hunter 
civilization.  In  the  course  of  my  remarks  you  will 
have  seen  that  the  story  told  by  the  rudely  chipped 


1666  THE  STORY  OF  THE   UNIVERSE 

implements  found  at  our  very  door  forms  a  part  of 
the  wider  story  of  the  first  appearance  of  man  and 
of  his  distribution  on  the  earth. 


MAN'S    PRIMITIVE    CON- 
DITION.—DUKE  OF  ARGYLL 

AS  the  question  of  man's  origin  is  different  from 
the  question  of  his  antiquity,  and  as  the  an- 
tiquity of  man  is  a  different  question  from  his  primi- 
tive condition,  so  again  the  last  question  includes 
within  itself  several  different  matters  of  inquiry. 
There  is  first  the  question,  What  consciousness  had 
primeval  man  of  moral  obligation,  and  what  com- 
munion with  his  Creator?  Next  there  is  the  ques- 
tion, What  were  his  innate  intellect  or  understand- 
ing? And,  thirdly,  there  is  the  question,  What  was 
his  condition  in  respect  to  knowledge,  whether  as  the 
result  of  intuition  or  as  the  result  of  teaching?  Sir 
J.  Lubbock  speaks  of  primeval  man  as  having  been 
in  a  condition  of  "utter  barbarism."  But  no  one, 
speaking  philosophically,  has  a  right  to  use  such 
terms  as  "barbarism"  and  "civilization"  without 
some  definition  of  their  meaning.  What  were  those 
faculties  which  made  the  first  creature  who  pos- 
sessed them  "worthy  to  be  called  a  man"?  A  mind 
capable  of  reason,  disposed  to  reason,  and  able  to  ac- 
quire, to  accumulate,  and  to  transmit  knowledge— 
this  is  the  distinctive  attribute  of  man.  The  first 
being  "worthy  to  be  so  called"  must  have  had  such  a 
mind.  But  it  could  not  properly  be  said  of  such  a 
being,  on  the  ground  merely  of  his  ignorance  of  me- 


MAN'S   PRIMITIVE  CONDITION  1657 

chanical  arts,  that  he  was  in  a  condition  of  "utter 
barbarism,"  if  he  were  at  the  same  time  conscious 
of  moral  obligations  and  obedient  to  them. 

Wherever  a  brutal  or  savage  custom  prevails  it  is  at 
once  assumed  to  be  a  sample  of  the  original  condition 
of  mankind.  And  this  in  the  teeth  of  facts  which  prove 
that  many  of  such  customs  not  only  may  have  been, 
but  must  have  been,  the  result  of  corruption.  Take 
cannibalism  as  one  of  these.  Sir  J.  Lubbock  seems  to 
admit  that  this  loathsome  practice  was  not  primeval, 
probably  because  he  considers  it  as  unnatural.  And 
so  it  is — that  is  to  say,  it  is  against  the  better  nature 
of  man ;  but  the  fact  of  its  existence  proves  that  within 
the  limits  of  that  nature  there  are  elements  liable  to 
perversions  even  so  horrible  as  this.  And  so  we  come 
upon  the  fact  of  the  two  natures  of  man,  and  of  the 
power  of  the  worst  parts  of  his  nature  to  overcome 
the  best.  It  is  thus  that  customs  the  most  cruel  and 
depraved  become  established.  But  if  this  be  the 
explanation,  and  the  only  possible  explanation,  of 
cannibalism,  is  it  not  evident  that  this  may  also  be 
the  explanation  of  other  customs  which  are  violent 
and  horrible  only  in  a  less  degree?  Cruel  rites  of 
worship  and  savage  customs  as  regards  marriage 
and  the  relation  of  the  sexes  come  under  the  same 
category.  Cannibalism  is  only  an  extreme  case  of  a 
general  law,  and  it  is  a  crucial  test  of  the  fallacy  of 
a  whole  class  of  arguments  commonly  assumed  by 
those  who  support  the  savage  theory  respecting  the 
primeval  condition  of  mankind. 

The  great  difficulty  of  teaching  many  savages  the 
arts  of  civilized  life  is  no  proof  whatever  that  the 


1658  THE  STORY  OF  THE  UNIVERSE 

various  degrees  of  advance  toward  the  knowledge 
of  those  arts  which  are  actually  found  among  semi- 
barbarous  nations  may  not  have  been  of  strictly  in- 
digenous growth.  Thus  it  appears  that  one  tribe  of 
Red  Indians,  called  "Mandans,"  practiced  the  art 
of  fortifying  their  towns.  Surrounding  tribes,  al- 
though they  saw  the  advantages  derived  from  this  art, 
yet  never  practiced  it,  and  never  learned  it. 

I  do  not  agree  with  the  late  Archbishop  of  Dublin 
that  we  are  entitled  to  assume  it  as  a  fact  that,  as 
regards  the  mechanical  arts,  no  savage  race  has  ever 
raised  itself.  Whately  says  that  "the  earliest  gene- 
rations of  mankind  had  received  only  very  limited, 
and  what  may  be  called  elementary,  instruction, 
enough  merely  to  enable  them  to  make  further  ad- 
vances afterward  by  the  exercise  of  their  natural 
powers."  But  how  much  was  this  "enough"?  And 
what  is  meant  by  "instruction,"  as  distinguished  from 
inborn  or  intuitive  powers  of  observation  and  of 
reasoning?  May  not  this  have  been  the  form  in 
which  the  Creator  first  "instructed"  man?  For  here 
it  is  important  to  observe  that  in  direct  proportion 
as  we  assume  man's  primitive  condition  to  have  been 
such  as  to  require  elementary  teaching,  in  the  same 
proportion  do  we  suppose  that  his  primitive  condi- 
tion in  respect  to  intellect  was  low  and  weak.  Ac- 
cordingly, Whately  assumes  as  an  indisputable  fact, 
that  man  has  no  instincts  such  as  enable  the  lower 
animals  to  construct  nests,  cells,  and  lairs.  My  own 
belief  is  that  this  is  an  assumption  which  is  not  only 
unproved,  but  one  which  in  all  probability  is  false. 
As  Whately  himself  admits,  "man  is  an  animal"  as 


MAN'S  PRIMITIVE   CONDITION  1659 

well  as  the  creatures  that  are  below  him.  It  is  true 
that  he  has  not  instincts  of  the  same  kind  as  they 
have.  But  this  is  no  proof  whatever  that  he  has  not, 
and  had  not  originally,  instincts  which  stand  in  strict 
correlation  with  the  peculiarities  of  his  higher  phys- 
ical organization.  There  are  many  facts  which  go 
far  to  prove  that  man  has,  and  must  always  have  had. 
instincts  which  afford  all  that  is  required  as  a  start- 
ing-ground for  advance  in  the  mechanical  arts.  Few 
persons  have  reflected  on  how  much  is  involved  in 
the  most  purely  instinctive  acts,  such  as  the  throwing 
of  a  stone  or  the  wielding  of  a  stick  as  a  weapon  of 
offence.  Both  these  simple  acts  involve  the  great  prin- 
ciple of  the  use  of  artificial  tools.  Even  in  the  most 
rudimentary  form  the  use  of  an  implement  fashioned 
for  a  special  purpose  is  absolutely  peculiar  to  man, 
and  arises  necessarily  and  instinctively  out  of  the 
structure  of  his  body.  The  bodies  of  the  lower  ani- 
mals are  so  constructed  that  such  implements  as  they 
are  capable  of  directing  are  all  supplied  in  the  form 
of  bodily  organs.  All  effects  which  they  desire  to 
produce,  or  are  capable  of  producing,  are  effected 
directly  by  the  use  of  those  organs  under  the  guidance 
of  implanted  instincts.  There  are  some  very  curious 
cases  among  the  lower  animals  of  a  near  approach 
to  the  principle  involved  in  the  use  of  tools — that  is 
to  say,  the  use  of  natural  force  through  artificial 
means.  Thus  the  common  gray  or  hooded  crow  is 
constantly  in  the  habit  of  lifting  shell-fish  to  a  cer- 
tain height  in  the  air  and  then  letting  them  fall  upon 
the  rocks  of  the  shore  in  order  to  break  the  shells. 
Some  species  of  monkey  will  even  use  any  stone 


1660  THE   STORY  OP  THE   UNIVERSE 

which  may  be  at  hand  for  the  purpose  of  striking  and 
breaking  a  nut.  The  elephant  tears  branches  from 
the  trees  and  uses  them  as  an  artificial  tail  to  fan 
himself  and  to  keep  off  the  flies.  But  between  these 
rudiments  of  intellectual  perception  and  the  next 
step — that  of  adapting  and  fashioning  an  instrument 
for  a  particular  purpose — there  is  a  gulf  in  which 
lies  the  whole  immeasurable  distance  between  man 
and  the  brutes.  In  no  case  whatever  do  they  ever 
use  an  implement  made  by  themselves  as  an  inter- 
mediate agency  between  their  bodily  organs  and  the 
work  which  they  desire  to  do.  Man,  on  the  con- 
trary, is  so  constructed  that  in  almost  everything  he 
desires  to  do  he  must  employ  an  agency  intermediate 
between  his  bodily  organs  and  the  effect  which  he 
wishes  to  produce.  But  this  necessity,  which  in  one 
aspect  is  a  physical  disability,  is  correlated  with  a 
mind  capable  of  invention,  and  with  certain  im- 
planted instincts  which  involve  all  the  rudiments  of 
mechanical  skill.  The  man  who  first  lifted  a  stone 
and  threw  it,  practiced  an  art  which  not  one  of  the 
lower  animals  is  capable  of  practicing.  This  is  an 
act  which  in  all  probability  is  as  strictly  instinctive 
and  natural  to  man  as  it  is  to  a  dog  to  bite,  or  to  a  bull 
to  charge.  Yet  the  act  involves  the  idea  and  the 
knowledge  of  projectile  force  and  of  the  arts  by 
which  direction  can  be  given  to  that  force.  The 
wielding  of  a  stick  is,  in  all  probability,  an  act 
equally  of  primitive  intuition,  and  from  this  to  the 
throwing  of  a  stick,  and  the  use  of  javelins,  is  an  easy 
and  natural  transition.  Simple  as  these  acts  are,  they 
involve  both  physical  and  mental  powers  capable  of 


MAN'S   PRIMITIVE  CONDITION  1661 

all  the  developments  which  we  see  in  the  most 
advanced  industrial  arts. 

And  here  it  is  important  to  observe  that  even  if 
savage  races  be  taken  as  the  type  of  man's  primeval 
condition,  the  evidence  afforded  by  these  races  is  all 
in  favor  of  the  conclusion  that,  as  regards  his  char- 
acteristic mental  powers,  man  has  always  been  man, 
and  nothing  less.  There  is  quite  as  much  ingenuity 
and  skill  in  the  manufacture  of  a  knife  of  flint  as  in 
the  manufacture  of  a  knife  of  iron.  And  the  skill 
displayed  by  the  men  who  used  stone  implements  is 
not  confined  to  that  which  is  involved  in  the  selection 
of  mineral  substances  suitable  for  the  purpose.  That 
skill  is  also  eminently  displayed  in  the  use  made  of 
those  stone  implements  after  they  had  been  fash- 
ioned. The  smaller  implements  of  bone,  or  of  horn, 
or  of  wood  which  the  stone  knives  and  hatchets  were 
employed  to  make  are  often  highly  ingenious,  and 
sometimes  eminently  beautiful.  The  truth  is  that 
high  qualities  of  reasoning  and  ready  faculties  of 
observation  are  called  forth  in  the  inverse  ratio  of 
the  acquired  knowledge  with  which  they  are  pro- 
vided, and  from  which  they  start. 

It  matters  not  which  of  the  two  theories  we  adopt 
in  regard  to  the  origin  of  the  human  race,  whether 
we  suppose  it  to  have  proceeded  from  one  or  from 
two,  or  even  from  several  different  centres  of  cre- 
ation; it  matters  not  whether  we  suppose  with  Sir 
J.  Lubbock  that  the  "first  being  worthy  to  be  called 
a  man"  was  born  of  some  inferior  creature,  or 
whether  we  believe  with  Whately,  that  he  was  truly 
human  in  his  powers,  but  required  some  "elementary 


1662  THE   STORY  OF  THE   UNIVERSE 

instruction  to  enable  his  faculties  to  begin  their 
work."  In  any  case  we  may  safely  assume  that  man 
must  have  begun  his  course  in  some  one  or  more 
of  those  portions  of  the  earth  which  are  genial  in 
climate,  rich  in  natural  fruits,  and  capable  of  yield- 
ing the  most  abundant  return  to  the  very  simplest 
arts.  It  is  under  such  conditions  that  the  first  es- 
tablishment of  the  human  race  can  be  most  easily 
understood;  nay,  it  is  under  such  conditions  only 
that  it  is  conceivable  at  all.  And  as  these  are  the  con- 
ditions which  would  favor  the  first  establishment 
and  the  most  rapid  increase  of  man,  so  also  are  these 
the  conditions  under  which  knowledge  would  most 
rapidly  accumulate,  and  the  earliest  possibilities  of 
material  civilization  would  arise. 

Now  what  are  the  changes  of  external  circumstance 
which  first,  in  the  natural  course  of  things,  would 
bring  an  adverse  influence  to  bear  upon  mankind? 
'Here  again  we  are  on  firm  ground,  because  we  know 
one  great  cause  which  has  been  always  operating,  and 
we  know  its  natural  and  inevitable  effects.  This 
cause  is  simply  the  law  of  increase.  It  is  the  conse- 
quence of  that  law  that  population  is  always  pressing 
upon  the  limits  of  subsistence.  Hence  the  necessity  of 
migrations,  and  the  force  which  has  propelled  suc- 
cessive generations  of  men  further  and  further,  in 
ever-widening  circles  round  the  original  centre  or 
centres  of  their  birth.  Then,  as  it  would  always  be 
the  weaker  tribes  who  would  be  driven  from  the 
ground  which  had  become  overstocked,  and  as  the 
lands  to  which  they  went  forth  were  less  and  less 
hospitable  in  climate  and  productions,  the  struggle 


MAN'S   PRIMITIVE   CONDITION  1663 

for  life  would  be  always  harder.  And  so  it  always 
happens  in  the  natural  and  necessary  course  of  things, 
that  the  races  which  were  driven  furthest  would  be 
the  rudest — the  most  engrossed  in  the  pursuits  of 
mere  animal  existence. 

Is  it  not  true  that  the  lowest  and  rudest  tribes  in 
the  population  of  the  globe  have  been  found  at  the 
furthest  extremities  of  its  great  continents,  and  in 
the  distant  islands  which  would  be  the  last  refuge  of 
the  victims  of  violence  and  misfortune?  "The  New 
World"  is  the  continent  which  presents  the  most  un- 
interrupted stretch  of  habitable  land  from  the  highest 
northern  to  the  lowest  southern  latitude.  On  the  ex- 
treme north  we  have  the  Eskimo,  or  Inuit  race,  main- 
taining human  life  under  conditions  of  extremest 
hardship,  even  amid  the  perpetual  ice  of  the  polar 
seas.  And  what  a  life  it  is!  Watching  at  the  blow- 
hole of  a  seal  for  many  hours,  in  a  temperature  of  75° 
below  freezing-point,  is  the  constant  work  of  the  Inuit 
hunter.  And  when  at  last  his  prey  is  struck,  it  is  his 
luxury  to  feast  upon  the  raw  blood  and  blubber.  To 
civilized  man  it  is  hardly  possible  to  conceive  a  life 
so  wretched,  and  in  many  respects  so  brutal,  as  the  life 
led  by  this  race  during  the  long  lasting  night  of  the 
Arctic  winter.  Not  even  the  most  extravagant  the- 
orist, as  regards  the  plurality  of  human  origins,  can 
suppose  that  there  was  an  Eskimo  Adam — that  any 
man  was  originally  created  or  developed  in  the  icy 
regions  round  the  pole.  Here  then  we  have  a  case, 
beyond  all  question,  of  races  driven  by  wars  and  mi- 
grations from  the  more  temperate  regions  of  the 
globe.  So  long  as  they  were  still  in  those  regions, 

&      Q  °  +•  VOL.  TV.    ° 


1664  THE  STORY  OF  THE   UNIVERSE 

the  ancestors  of  the  Eskimo  must  have  lived  in  an- 
other manner,  and  must  have  had  wholly  different 
habits.  The  rigors  of  the  region  they  now  inhabit 
have  reduced  this  people  to  the  condition  in  which 
we  now  see  them,  and  whatever  arts  their  fathers 
knew,  suited  to  more  genial  climates,  have  been,  and 
could  not  fail  to  be,  utterly  forgotten. 

And  now  let  us  pass  to  the  other  extremity  of  the 
great  continent  of  America — to  Cape  Horn,  and  to 
the  island  off  it,  which  projects  its  desolate  rocks 
into  one  of  the  most  inhospitable  climates  in  the 
world.  The  inhabitants  of  Tierra  del  Fuego  are  per- 
haps the  most  degraded  among  the  races  of  mankind. 
How  could  they  be  otherwise?  "Their  country," 
says  Mr.  Darwin,  "is  a  broken  mass  of  wild  rocks, 
lofty  hills,  and  useless  forests ;  and  these  are  viewed 
through  mists  and  endless  storms.  The  habitable 
land  is  reduced  to  the  stones  of  the  beach.  In  search 
of  food  they  are  compelled  to  wander  unceasingly 
from  spot  to  spot,  and  so  steep  is  the  coast  that  they 
can  only  move  about  in  their  wretched  canoes."  They 
are  habitual  cannibals,  killing  and  eating  their  old 
women  before  they  kill  their  dogs,  for  the  sufficient 
reason,  as  explained  by  themselves — "Doggies  catch 
otters,  old  women  no."  Well  might  Darwin  add, 
"While  beholding  these  savages  one  asks,  Whence 
have  they  come?  What  could  have  tempted,  or  what 
change  compelled,  a  tribe  of  men  to  leave  the  fine 
regions  of  the  north,  to  travel  down  the  Cordillera, 
or  backbone  of  America,  to  invent  and  build  canoes 
which  are  not  used  by  the  tribes  of  Chili,  Peru,  and 
Brazil,  and  then  to  enter  on  one  of  the  most  inhos- 


MAN'S  PRIMITIVE   CONDITION  1665 

pitable  countries  within  the  limits  of  the  globe?" 
There  can  be  but  one  explanation.      Quarrels  and 
wars  between  tribe  and  tribe,  induced  by  the  mere 
increase  of  numbers  and  the  consequent  pressure  on 
the  means  of  subsistence,  have  been  always,  ever  since 
man  existed,  driving  the  weaker  races  further  and 
further  from  the  older  settlements  of  mankind.    And 
when  the  ultimate  points  of  the  habitable  world  are 
reached,  the  conditions  of  existence  cause  and  necessi- 
tate a  savage  and  degraded  life.     Darwin  gives  the 
true  explanation  of  their  condition  when  he  says, 
"How  little  can  the  higher  powers  of  the  mind  be 
brought  into  play!    What  is  there  for  imagination  to 
picture,  for  reason  to  compare,  for  judgment  to  de- 
cide upon?"    The  case  of  the  Fuegians  is  a  case  in 
which  there  can  be  no  doubt  whatever  of  the  causes 
of  their  degraded  condition.    On  every  side  of  them, 
and  in  proportion  as  we  recede  from  their  wretched 
country,  the  surrounding  tribes  are  less  wretched  and 
better  acquainted  with  the  simpler  arts.     And  it  is 
remarkable  that  in  the  case  of  this  people  we  have 
proof  of  another  point  of  great  interest  and  impor- 
tance, viz.,  this — that  even  the  most  degraded  sav- 
ages have  all   the   perfect   attributes   of  humanity, 
which  can  be  and  are  developed  the  moment  they 
are    placed    under   favorable   conditions.      Captain 
Fitzroy  had  in  1830  carried  off  some  of  these  people 
to  England,  where  they  were  taught  the  habits  and 
the  arts  of  civilized  life.    Of  one  of  these,  who  was 
taken  back  to  his  own  country  in  the  Beagle,  Mr. 
Darwin  tells  us  that  his  "intellect  was  good,"  and  of 
another  that  he  had  a  "nice  disposition."    We  see, 


1666  THE   STORY  OF  THE   UNIVERSE 

therefore,  that  every  fact  and  circumstance  connected 
with  the  Fuegians  agrees  with  the  supposition  that 
their  "utter  barbarism"  was  due  entirely  to  the  cruel 
conditions  of  their  life,  and  the  wretched  country 
into  which  they  had  been  driven.  The  Bushmen  of 
South  Africa  are  another  case  in  point.  It  seems  to 
be  clearly  ascertained  that  they  belong  to  the  same 
race  as  other  tribes  who  are  far  less  degraded,  and 
that  they  are  simply  the  descendants  of  outcasts 
driven  to  the  woods  and  rocks.  So,  again,  among  the 
great  islands  of  the  Pacific,  the  natives  of  Van  Die- 
men's  Land  were  the  most  utterly  degraded  of  all 
the  Polynesian  races. 

With  these  facts  staring  us  in  the  face,  connecting 
themselves  in  an  obvious  order  with  causes  which  we 
know  to  be  all  operating  in  one  direction,  is  it  not 
absurd  to  argue  that  the  condition  of  these  outcasts 
of  the  human  family  can  be  assumed  as  representing 
the  aboriginal  condition  of  man?  Is  it  not  certain 
that  whatever  advances  toward  civilization  may  have 
been  made  among  their  progenitors,  such  advances 
must  necessarily  have  been  lost  under  the  conditions 
to  which  their  children  are  reduced? 

And  now  we  can  better  estimate  the  value  to  be  set 
on  the  arguments  which  have  been  founded  on  the 
rude  implements  found  in  the  river  drifts  and  in  the 
caves  of  Northern  Europe.  I,  for  one,  accept  the  evi- 
dence which  geology  affords  that  these  implements  are 
of  very  ancient  date.  I  accept  too  the  evidence  which 
that  science  affords,  that  these  implements  were  in  all 
probability  the  ice  hatchets  and  rude  knives  used 
by  tribes  which  toward  the  close  of  the  glacial  age 


RACES   OF  MANKIND 


1667 


had  pushed  their  way  to  the  furthest  limits  of  the 
lands  which  were  then  habitable.  And  what  fol- 
lows? The  inevitable  conclusion  is,  that  it  must  be 
about  as  safe  to  argue  from  those  implements  as  to 
the  condition  of  man  at  that  time,  in  the  countries 
of  his  primeval  home,  as  it  would  be  in  our  own  day 
to  argue  from  the  habits  and  arts  of  the  Eskimo  as  to 
the  state  of  civilization  in  London  or  in  Paris. 

RACES   OF   MANKIND 

— WILLIAM  HUGHES 

IT  is  estimated  that  the  earth  is  inhabited,  at  the 
present  time,  by  1,450  millions  of  human  beings, 
who  are  distributed  over  its  surface  in  the  manner 
shown  in  the  following  table: 


Area  in  Briti«h 
square  mile* 

Population 

Population  to 
square  mile 

Europe   
Asia  
Africa     ... 

3,700,000 
I7,OOO,OOO 
I2,OOO,OOO 

320,000,000 
83O,OOO,OOO 
2OO,OOO,OOO 

86 

47 
16 

North    America    (in-  i 
eluding  West  Indies)  j" 
South  America 
Oceania  

8,6OO,OOO 
7,OOO,OOO 

3,000,000 

68,000,000 

28,000,000 
4,000,000 

8 

4 

I 

Europe  is,  therefore,  relatively  to  its  size,  by  much 
the  most  populous  division  of  the  globe,  though  Asia 
contains  the  highest  number  of  inhabitants — amount- 
ing, indeed,  to  little  less  than  two-thirds  of  the  en- 
tire human  race.  The  New  World  is  very  much  less 
populated  by  man  than  the  older  known  portions  of 
the  globe,  though  its  capabilities  for  the  support  of 
man  fully  equal  those  of  any  of  the  continents  of  the 


1668  THE   STORY   OF  THE   UNIVERSE 

Eastern  Hemisphere.  Australia,  and  the  scattered 
islands  of  the  Pacific  Ocean,  are  the  least  populous 
portions  of  the  earth,  the  total  present  number  of 
their  inhabitants  amounting  to  a  mere  fraction  of  the 
entire  number.* 

The  numerical  distribution  of  mankind  undergoes 
great  change  in  the  present  day,  when  emigration 
from  over-populated  lands  to  distant  parts  of  the 
globe  is  conducted  on  so  extensive  a  scale.  But  this 
affects  the  distribution  of  race  in  much  higher  meas- 
ure than  it  does  the  merely  numerical  distribution  of 
man.  The  fast-increasing  numbers  of  the  settlers  in 
the  fertile  plains  and  river  valleys  of  the  New  World, 
descendants  of  European  colonists,  perhaps  hardly 
more  than  replaces,  numerically,  the  native  races 
who  occupied  the  same  regions  prior  to  the  first  visit 
of  the  white  man  to  their  shores.  It  is  the  tendency, 
everywhere,  of  the  native  races  to  decay  before  the 
white  settler.  Wars,  famine,  epidemic  diseases,  and 
various  social  causes,  again,  tend  to  keep  down  the 
total  number  of  the  human  family — at  any  rate,  to 

*  The  figures  given  in  the  above  table  represent  no  more  than 
an  approximate  estimate.  It  is  only  in  the  case  of  Europe  that 
we  possess  the  means  of  making  such  calculations  with  any 
approach  to  accuracy.  The  amount  of  the  population  of  China 
alone  has  been  stated  with  wide  variations — the  estimates  rang- 
ing between  two  hundred  millions  and  more  than  double  that 
number.  We  adopt  above  the  higher  number,  which  appears  to 
be  confirmed  by  the  general  testimony  of  observers.  The  num- 
ber of  inhabitants  within  the  African  continent  (and  espe- 
cially within  those  portions  of  it  populated  by  the  negro  race) 
is  scarcely  more  than  a  guess:  the  figures  given  above  are 
probably  rather  below  than  in  excess  of  the  truth. 


RACES  OF  MANKIND  1669 

check  the  more  rapid  numerical  growth  which  it 
would  otherwise  exhibit. 

The  generally  recognized  ethnological  division  of 
mankind,  with  reference  to  race,  is  into  three  leading 
families — the  Caucasian,  Mongolian,  and  Negro. 
Two  other  families — the  Malay  and  the  American — 
are  commonly  added  to  these,  making  five  in  the 
total.  The  first-named  division  is  that  suggested  by 
the  illustrious  French  naturalist,  Cuvier.  The  five- 
fold division  is  due  to  the  German  philosopher, 
Blumenbach.  In  the  scheme  of  the  former,  the 
Malay  and  American  are  regarded  as  sub-varieties 
— the  one  of  the  Caucasian  and  the  other  of  the  Mon- 
golian family.  Other  writers  again  enumerate  a 
much  greater  number  of  varieties  of  mankind,  each 
possessing  characters  sufficiently  distinct  to  entitle 
it  to  be  regarded  as  a  separate  family. 

[In  using  the  word  race,  as  applied  to  different 
families  of  man,  the  division  must  be  understood  as 
implying  "variety"  only — not  species.  There  is  no 
specific  difference  in  the  various  members  of  the 
human  family — no  difference,  that  is,  which  implies 
anything  in  contradiction  to  the  assumption  that  all 
mankind  have  had  a  common  origin,  springing  from 
a  single  pair.  The  human  family  differs  in  this  regard 
from  all  the  lower  members  of  the  animal  kingdom. 
The  order  "bimana"  (i.  e.,  two-handed],  to  which, 
in  scientific  classification,  man  is  referred,  comprises 
only  a  single  genus,  and  a  single  species. 

The  characteristic  points  of  difference  between  the 
great  families  of  mankind  above  referred  to  are  the 
color  of  the  skin,  eyes,  and  hair  (with  the  nature  of 


1670  THE  STORY   OF  THE   UNIVERSE 

the  latter,  whether  curled,  lank,  woolly,  or  frizzled), 
and  the  shape  of  the  skull.  All  other  physical  dif- 
ferences, as  regards  stature,  form  of  limbs,  and  gen- 
eral outline  of  body,  seem  capable  of  ready  explana- 
tion by  reference  to  opposite  conditions  of  climate, 
food,  and  habits  of  social  life.  But  between  the 
Caucasian  and  the  Negro,  or  the  latter  and  the  Mon- 
gol, there  is  a  broad  and  strongly  marked  difference, 
and  one  that  extends  over  the  whole  historic  period.] 

The  distinguishing  attributes  of  the  Caucasian 
race,  physically  considered,  are  the  oval  form  of  the 
skull  with  the  generally  symmetrical  shape  of  the 
entire  head  and  frame  of  body.  The  face  is  of  oval 
form,  the  features  moderately  prominent,  the  fore- 
head arched,  the  cheek-bones  only  slightly  project- 
ing, the  mouth  small,  the  chin  full  and  round;  with 
the  skin  generally  of  light  color  (varying,  however, 
from  white  to  a  deep  brown,  or  swarthy,  hue),  the 
eyes  and  hair  of  various  hue,  and  the  latter  often 
curling.  The  facial  angle*  is  greater  in  the  case  of 
the  Caucasian  than  in  either  of  the  other  varieties 
of  mankind. 

The  epithet  Caucasian,  applied  to  this  branch  of 
the  human  family,  is  derived  from  the  high  moun- 


*  The  facial  angle  is  formed  by  the  meeting  of  two  lines 
drawn  on  the  profile  of  the  skull— one  of  them  a  line  touch- 
ing the  projecting  part  of  the  forehead  and  the  gum  of  the 
upper  jaw,  the  other  connecting  the  base  of  the  nose  and  the 
opening  of  the  ear.  The  angle  formed  by  the  meeting  of  these 
lines  sometimes  amounts  in  a  Caucasian  variety  of  man  to  80 
degrees  and  upward ;  in  the  other  varieties  it  seldom  exceeds 
70  degrees;  and  in  the  instance  of  some  degraded  races  is 
considerably  less. 


RACES  OP  MANKIND  1671 

tain  range  which  stretches  between  the  Black  and 
Caspain  Seas,  and  is  justified  by  the  fact  that  the 
finest  specimens  of  man — physically  considered- 
have  in  all  ages  been  found  in  proximity  to  that  re- 
gion. The  perfect  forms  and  external  beauty  of  the 
Circassian  and  Georgian  people — male  and  female 
alike — are  well  known.  The  finest  types  of  the 
white  race  (mere  physical  beauty  alone  being  con- 
sidered) are  to  be  found  within  the  elevated  region  of 
the  Caucasian  isthmus ;  and  it  has  even  been  sought 
to  show  that  the  human  form  degenerates  in  propor- 
tion as  its  distance  thence,  in  whatsoever  direction,  is 
increased.  To  the  westward  of  the  Caucasus  (what- 
ever may  be  the  case  in  other  directions),  the  grace 
which  attends  on  moral  and  intellectual  dignity  is, 
however,  added  to  that  of  merely  personal  beauty. 

Considered  in  reference  to  color,  the  Caucasian  is 
the  white  variety  of  the  human  family;  but  the  latter 
epithet  must  be  considered  as  applicable  only  in  a 
general  sense,  for  numerous  shades  of  color  inter- 
vene between  the  swarthy  complexions  of  the  sub- 
tropical regions  that  border  on  the  Mediterranean 
and  the  fair  skins  of  the  people  of  Northern  and 
Northwestern  Europe.  These  differences  are  doubt- 
less in  some  measure  dependent  on  climate.  Yet 
there  must  be  a  well-grounded  difference  due  to 
other  causes,  since  families  of  whites  dwell  dur- 
ing several  successive  generations  within  the  tropics 
without  acquiring  the  hue  of  the  Negro,  or  settle 
within  the  western  continent  without  gaining  any 
external  resemblance  to  the  copper-colored  native  of 
the  New  World. 


1672  THE   STORY   OF   THE   UNIVERSE 

The  geographical  distribution  of  the  Caucasian 
family  in  the  present  day  is  nearly  co-extensive  with 
the  land  area  of  the  globe ;  but  this  family  of  nations 
is  most  numerously  developed  within  the  temperate 
latitudes  of  the  Northern  Hemisphere.  Western 
Asia,  the  European  continent  (with  the  exception  of 
a  portion  in  the  extreme  north),  and  the  northern 
belt  of  Africa,  are  the  proper  home  of  the  Caucasian 
tribes.  Thence  they  have  colonized  nearly  every  part 
of  the  New  World,  as  well  as  Southern  Africa  and 
the  more  distant  regions  of  Australia  and  New  Zea- 
land, at  the  opposite  side  of  the  globe.  Nine-tenths 
of  the  population  of  Europe  belong  to  the  Caucasian 
family  of  man,  the  small  minority  who  constitute  the 
exception  consisting  of  the  Turks,  the  Magyars,  the 
Finns,  the  Laplanders,  and  the  Samoiedes.  In  Asia, 
the  Caucasian  nations  form  but  a  minority  of  its  vast 
population ;  they  include,  however,  the  natives  of  the 
Arabian  or  Semitic  stock,  the  Persians,  the  Afghans, 
and  perhaps  also  (such,  at  least,  is  the  generally  re- 
ceived theory)  the  Hindoos — that  is,  all  the  peo- 
ple dwelling  to  the  south  of  the  Himalaya  and  to 
the  west  of  the  Bay  of  Bengal.  In  Africa,  the  pro- 
portion of  Caucasians  to  its  population  is  probably 
small,  though  they  are  spread  over  the  whole  of 
Northern  Africa,  from  the  Mediterranean  to  the 
southern  border  of  the  desert,  and  the  furthest  limit 
of  Abyssinia. 

In  America,  the  Caucasian  family — settling  in  that 
part  of  the  world  as  colonists  only  within  the  last 
three  centuries  and  a  half — is  fast  supplanting  the 
indigenous  races,  and  comprehends  two-thirds  of  the 


RACES  OF  MANKIND  1673 

total  number  of  its  inhabitants  in  the  present  day. 
Within  the  temperate  latitudes  of  North  America, 
that  is,  within  the  valleys  of  the  Mississippi  and  St. 
Lawrence,  with  the  Atlantic  seaboard  from  the  Gulf 
of  St.  Lawrence  southward,  the  white  race  is  most 
numerous.  Five-sixths  of  the  present  population  of 
North  America  belong,  either  in  whole  or  in  part, 
to  the  Caucasian  stock. 

In  the  case  of  Australia,  the  diminution  in  the 
numbers  of  the  native  race  has  been  even  more  rapid 
than  in  the  case  of  the  Western  Continent.  The  white 
race,  whose  date  of  settlement  on  the  Australian 
shores  is  as  yet  hardly  more  than  three-quarters  of  a 
century,  now  vastly  outnumbers  the  indigenous  tribes. 
In  Tasmania,  the  latter  have  indeed  become* extinct. 
Even  in  New  Zealand,  which  was  peopled  by  an 
athletic  tribe  of  savages  when  Captain  Cook  visited 
it  less  than  a  century  since,  the  colonial  population, 
planted  on  its  shores  within  the  last  forty  years,  now 
greatly  outnumbers  the  native  tribes,  which,  more- 
over, undergo  gradual  diminution  in  numerical 
amount. 

The  Mongolian  variety  of  man  is  distinguished 
by  a  greater  approach  to  squareness  in  the  shape  of 
the  skull  (viewed  from  above),  with  greater  promi- 
nence in  the  cheek-bones — so  that  lines  prolonged 
from  the  sides  of  the  face  upward  meet  in  a  point, 
giving  the  entire  framework  of  the  head  a  pyram- 
idal shape.  The  forehead  is  comparatively  low 
and  slanting;  the  face  and  nose  broad  and  flat;  the 
eyes  deeply  sunk,  with  the  inner  corner  slanting  to- 
ward the  nose;  the  complexion  of  an  olive  or  yel- 


1674  THE   STORY   OF  THE   UNIVERSE 

lowish-brown  color,  the  hair  lank  and  black,  the 
beard  scanty,  the  stature  below  that  of  Europeans, 
and  the  frame  generally  broad,  square,  and  robust, 
with  high  shoulders,  and  the  neck  thick  and  strong. 
These  attributes  are  much  less  strongly  marked  in 
the  case  of  some  nations  of  Mongol  parentage  than  in 
others,  and  in  the  instances  of  the  Magyars,  Turks, 
and  Finns — long  settled  among  the  Caucasian  family 
— have  in  great  measure  disappeared.  In  point  of 
color,  the  Mongolian  is  known  as  the  yellow  va- 
riety of  mankind. 

The  name  of  Mongolian,  applied  to  this  branch  of 
the  human  family,  is  derived  from  the  nomad  races 
who  peopled  the  upland  plains  of  Central  Asia.  It 
comprehends,  besides  the  Mongols  proper,  the  vast 
population  of  China  (above  a  third  of  the  entire 
human  family),  together  with  the  Burmese,  Siamese, 
and  other  inhabitants  of  the  southeastern  peninsula 
of  Asia,  and  the  native  tribes  of  the  Siberian  low- 
land. The  Turks  and  the  Magyars,  in  Southeastern 
and  Central  Europe,  the  Finns,  Samoiedes,  and  Lap- 
landers, in  the  extreme  north  of  the  same  continent, 
and  the  Eskimos,  in  the  correspondent  latitudes 
of  the  New  World,  belong  to  the  same  stock.  In 
all,  probably  three-fifths  of  the  population  of  Asia, 
and  more  than  a  half  of  the  population  of  the  globe, 
are  comprehended  within  this  division  of  mankind. 

The  Negro,  or  black  variety  of  mankind,  is  dis- 
tinguished in  general  by  the  elongated  form  of  the 
skull,  combined  with  a  low  facial  angle.  The  eyes, 
as  well  as  the  skin,  are  black;  the  nose  broad,  flat, 
and  thick;  the  cheek-bones  prominent;  the  lips 


RACES   OF   MANKIND  1675 

thick;  the  jaws  (especially  the  lower  one)  narrow 
and  projecting;  the  hair  woolly;  the  palms  of  the 
hands  and  the  soles  of  the  feet  flat;  and  the  forms 
of  the  arms  and  lower  extremities  generally  clumsy 
and  ungraceful.  These  attributes,  however,  are  very 
much  modified  in  the  case  of  some  members  of  the 
Negro  race,  and  they  belong  in  very  various  degree 
to  the  different  Negro  nations  who  inhabit  the  Afri- 
can continent.  The  black  skin,  woolly  hair,  thick 
lips,  and  elongated  skull  are  the  most  striking  fea- 
tures of  the  Negro  race. 

Africa,  to  the  south  of  the  desert,  is  the  proper 
home  of  the  Negro  race.  Tribes  of  true  Negro 
stock  occupy  by  far  the  larger  portion  of  that  great 
continent  to  the  southward  of  the  Senegal,  the 
Niger,  the  basin  of  Lake  Chad,  and  the  highlands  of 
Abyssinia.  The  Arabs,  however,  have  penetrated 
Central  Africa  within  the  basins  of  the  Niger  and 
Lake  Chad,  and  have  been  settled  for  upward  of  five 
centuries  upon  the  coasts  of  Eastern  Africa. 

The  Hottentot  and  Caffre  families,  who  inhabit 
the  extreme  south  of  the  African  continent,  must  be 
classed  as  sub-varieties  of  the  Negro  stock.  The 
epithet  negroid  is  generally  applied  to  these  races. 
But  between  the  Hottentot  and  Negro  types  there  is 
a  well-marked  distinction,  and  not  less  so  between 
the  Hottentot  and  the  Caffre  families.  The  color  of 
the  Hottentot  is  a  dark  and  yellowish  brown;  the 
hair  short  and  frizzled,  and  distributed  over  the 
head  in  tufts;  the  stature  short.  The  Caffres  are 
well  made  and  (comparatively  to  their  neighbors  of 
Hottentot  race)  of  muscular  frame — their  limbs  of 


1676  THE   STORY   OF  THE   UNIVERSE 

rounded  form,  their  skin  of  deep  brown  color,  their 
hair  short,  black,  and  curly,  but  less  woolly  than  that 
of  the  Negro. 

The  Negro  race,  through  the  iniquities  of  the 
slave-trade,  has  been  transplanted  from  Africa  to 
the  other  side  of  the  Atlantic,  and  now  forms  a  con- 
siderable item  in  the  population  of  the  New  World. 
In  North  America,  the  people  of  pure  Negro  blood 
amount,  however,  to  hardly  more  than  a  twelfth  part 
of  the  total  population;  in  South  America  the  pro- 
portion is  perhaps  rather  more  considerable. 

The  Malay,  or  brown  family  of  nations,  is  dis- 
tinguished, besides  the  color  of  the  skin,  by  lank, 
coarse,  and  black  hair;  with  flat  faces  and  obliquely 
set  eyes.  Their  stature  is  below  the  average  height 
either  of  the  Caucasian  or  the  Negro,  and  the  figure 
generally  square  and  robust. 

If  the  nations  of  the  Malay  family  are  to  be  re- 
ferred to  one  of  the  three  greater  divisions,  they  must 
be  regarded  as  a  sub-variety  either  of  the  Mongol 
or  the  Negro  stock.  Proximity  of  geographical  po- 
sition, with  other  circumstances,  would  lead  us  to 
prefer  the  former.  The  Papuans,  however,  who  in- 
habit New  Guinea  and  the  adjacent  islands  to  the 
eastward,  exhibit  many  of  the  characteristics  of  the 
Negro  type,  and  the  native  race  of  Australia  is  of  the 
Papuan  or  Austral-Negro  family.  There  is,  in  truth, 
throughout  the  Australian  and  Polynesian  division 
of  the  globe,  a  well-marked  distinction  between  the 
brown  and  the  black  races.  The  former,  who  belong 
to  the  true  Malay  family,  comprehend,  with  the 
Malays  proper  (that  is,  the  bulk  of  the  inhabitants 


RACES   OF  MANKIND  1677 

of  the  Malay  peninsula  and  the  adjacent  islands), 
the  people  of  Madagascar;  also  the  New  Zealanders! 
and  the  inhabitants  of  most  of  the  smaller  Poly- 
nesian archipelagoes,  from  the  Sandwich  Islands  on 
the  north  to  the  Society,  Navigators,  and  Friendly 
groups  in  the  south.  The  Austral-Negro  or  Papuan 
division,  on  the  other  hand,  includes  the  native  tribes 
of  the  Australian  continent  and  the  adjacent  island 
of  Tasmania  (the  latter  now  all  but  extinct),  with 
the  inhabitants  of  New  Guinea,  the  Louisiade  archi- 
pelago, New  Britain,  the  Solomon  Islands,  the  New 
Hebrides,  New  Caledonia,  and  the  Fiji  Islands. 

The  American,  or  red  variety  of  mankind,  has  its 
home  in  the  two  great  continents  which  are  together 
known  as  the  New  World.  Its  distinguishing  at- 
tributes are  a  reddish  or  copper-colored  skin,  with 
long,  coarse,  black  hair  (which  is  never  crisped  like 
that  of  the  Negro,  or  curled,  as  that  of  the  white  often 
is),  and  scanty  beard.  The  cheek-bones  are  promi- 
nent, but  more  arched  and  rounded  than  those  of  the 
Mongol,  without  being  so  angular,  or  projecting  at 
the  sides;  the  orbit  generally  deep,  and  the  outer 
angle  slightly  elevated.  In  point  of  temperament, 
the  Indian  (as  the  native  inhabitant  of  the  American 
wilderness  is  termed)  is  cold  and  phlegmatic  to  an 
unusual  degree,  and  he  manifests  an  extraordinary 
insensibility  to  bodily  pain.  His  bodily  senses — of 
sight,  hearing,  and  smell — are  remarkably  acute. 
These,  as  well  as  many  other  attributes  of  the  Indian 
race,  have  probably  resulted  from  the  conditions  of 
the  hunter's  life,  pursued  through  many  generations. 

The  above  characteristics,  however,  are  exhibited 


1678  THE  STORY  OF  THE   UNIVERSE 

in  widely  different  measure  in  the  case  of  the  nu- 
merous native  tribes  and  nations  that  are  found 
through  the  whole  wide  extent  of  the  American  con- 
tinent, though  all  of  them  (with  the  exception  of 
the  Eskimos)  are  classed  under  the  common  term 
Indian.  The  native  races  of  South  America  are  gen- 
erally further  removed  than  those  of  North  America 
from  the  higher  type  of  the  American  family,  and 
they  become  progressively  more  degraded  toward  its 
furthest  extremity.  Some  of  the  Indian  tribes  who 
dwell  in  the  Brazilian  forest  exhibit  a  degree  of 
personal  ugliness,  and  a  degradation  of  condition  in 
general,  which  contrasts  strikingly  with  that  of  the 
higher  classes  of  North  American  Indians,  and  the 
native  savages  of  Tierra  del  Fuego  are  among  the 
most  misshapen  and  degraded  of  the  human  race. 
In  these  and  some  other  cases  the  distortion  of  fea- 
ture, and  even  that  observable  in  the  shape  of  the 
head,  is  produced  by  artificial  means,  applied  in 
infancy. 

The  Indian  family  of  nations  makes,  perhaps, 
nearer  approach  to  the  Mongol  than  to  either  of  the 
other  two  great  divisions  of  mankind,  and  must  be 
regarded  as  a  sub-variety  of  that  family,  if  three 
great  varieties  only  be  allowed.  The  Eskimos, 
who  inhabit  the  extreme  northern  shores  of  the 
New  World,  are  uniformly  regarded  as  of  Mongol 
origin. 


THE   HUMAN    RACE  1679 


THE    HUMAN   RACE 

—LOUIS   FlGUIER 

WHAT  is  man?  A  profound  thinker,  Cardinal 
de  Bonald,  has  said:  "Man  is  an  intelligence 
assisted  by  organs."  We  would  fain  adopt  this  defi- 
nition, which  brings  into  relief  the  true  attribute  of 
man,  intelligence,  were  it  not  defective  in  drawing 
no  sufficient  distinction  between  man  and  the  brute. 
It  is  a  fact  that  animals  are  intelligent  and  that  their 
intelligence  is  assisted  by  organs.  But  their  intelli- 
gence is  infinitely  inferior  to  that  of  man.  It  does 
not  extend  beyond  the  necessities  of  attack  and  de- 
fence, the  power  of  seeking  food,  and  a  small  num- 
ber of  affections  or  passions,  whose  very  limited 
scope  merely  extends  to  material  wants.  With  man, 
on  the  other  hand,  intelligence  is  of  a  high  order, 
although  its  range  is  limited,  and  it  is  often  arrested, 
powerless  and  mute,  before  the  problems  itself  pro- 
poses. In  bodily  formation  man  is  an  animal,  he 
lives  in  a  material  envelope,  of  which  the  structure 
is  that  of  the  Mammalia;  but  he  far  surpasses  the 
animal  in  the  extent  of  his  intellectual  faculties.  The 
definition  of  man  must  therefore  establish  this  rela- 
tion which  animals  bear  to  ourselves,  and  indicate,  if 
possible,  the  degree  which  separates  them.  For  this 
reason  we  shall  define  man :  an  organized,  intelligent 
being,  endowed  with  the  faculty  of  abstraction. 

By  saying  that  man  appeared  for  the  first  time 
upon  the  globe  at  the  commencement  of  the  Qua- 


1680  THE  STORY  OF  THE   UNIVERSE 

ternary  Period,  we  establish  the  fact,  which  is 
agreeable  to  the  cosmogony  of  Moses,  that  man  was 
formed  after  the  other  animals,  and  that  by  his  ad- 
vent he  crowned  the  edifice  of  animal  creation. 

At  the  Quaternary  Period  almost  all  the  animals 
of  our  time  had  already  seen  the  light,  and  a  cer- 
tain number  of  animal  species  existed  which  were 
shortly  to  disappear.  When  man  was  created,  the 
mammoth,  the  great  bear,  the  cave  tiger,  and  the 
cervus  megaceros — animals  more  bulky,  more  robust, 
and  more  agile  than  the  corresponding  species  of 
our  time — filled  the  forests  and  peopled  the  plains. 
The  first  men  were  therefore  contemporary  with  the 
woolly  elephant,  the  cave  bear  and  tiger;  they  had 
to  contend  with  these  savage  phalanxes,  as  formida- 
ble in  their  number  as  their  strength.  Nevertheless, 
in  obedience  to  the  laws  of  nature,  these  animals  were 
to  disappear  from  the  globe  and  give  place  to  smaller 
or  different  species,  while  man,  persisting  in  the 
opposite  direction,  increased  and  multiplied,  as  the 
Scripture  has  said,  and  gradually  spread  into  all  in- 
habitable countries,  taking  possession  of  his  empire, 
which  daily  increased  with  the  progress  of  his  intel- 
ligence. 

Did  man  see  the  light  at  any  one  spot  of  the  earth, 
and  at  that  alone,  and  is  it  possible  to  indicate  the 
region  which  was,  so  to  say,  the  cradle  of  humanity? 
Or  are  we  to  believe  that,  in  the  first  instance,  man 
appeared  in  several  places  at  the  same  time?  That 
he  was  created  and  has  always  remained  in  the  very 
localities  he  now  inhabits?  That  the  Negro  was 
born  in  the  burning  regions  of  Central  Africa,  the 


THE   HUMAN   RACE  1681 

Laplander  or  the  Mongolian  in  the  cold  regions  to 
which  he  is  now  confined? 

There  is  a  school  of  philosophers  who  assert  that 
man  was  manifold  in  his  creation,  that  each  type  of 
humanity  originated  in  the  region  to  which  it  is  now 
attached,  and  that  it  was  not  emigration  followed 
by  the  action  of  climate,  circumstances,  and  customs 
which  gave  birth  to  the  different  races  of  man.  This 
opinion  has  been  upheld  in  a  work  by  M.  Georges 
Pouchet,  son  of  the  well-known  naturalist  of  Rouen. 

If  there  existed  several  centres  of  human  creation, 
they  should  be  indicated,  and  it  should  be  shown 
that  the  men  who  dwell  there  nowadays  have  never 
been  connected  with  other  populations.  M.  Georges 
Pouchet  preserves  prudent  silence  upon  this  ques- 
tion ;  he  avoids  defining  the  locus  of  any  one  of  these 
supposed  multiple  creations. 

We,  on  our  part,  think  that  man  had  on  the  globe 
one  centre  of  creation,  that,  fixed  in  the  first  instance 
in  a  particular  region,  he  has  radiated  in  every  direc- 
tion from  that  point,  and  by  his  wanderings,  coupled 
with  the  rapid  multiplication  of  his  descendants,  he 
has  ultimately  peopled  all  the  inhabitable  regions 
of  the  earth. 

We  need  hardly  say  that  animals,  like  plants,  are 
attached  to  various  localities  which  they  rarely  quit 
with  impunity,  since  they  have  not  the  faculty  of 
acclimatizing  themselves  at  will.  The  elephant  lives 
only  in  India  and  in  certain  parts  of  Africa;  the  hip- 
popotamus and  giraffe  in  other  countries  of  the  same 
continent;  monkeys  exist  in  very  few  portions  of  the 
globe,  and  if  we  consider  their  different  species,  we 


THE  STORY  OF  THE   UNIVERSE 

shall  find  that  the  place  of  abode  of  each  species  is 
very  limited.  For  instance,  of  the  larger  apes  the 
orang-outang  is  found  only  in  Borneo  and  Sumatra, 
and  the  gorilla  in  a  small  corner  of  Western  Africa. 
Had  man  originated  in  all  those  places  where  now 
his  different  races  are  found,  he  would  stand  alone  as 
an  exception  among  organized  beings. 

Reasoning  then  by  induction,  that  is,  applying  to 
man  all  that  we  observe  to  obtain  generally  among 
beings  living  on  the  surface  of  the  globe,  we  come  to 
the  conclusion  that  the  human  species,  in  common 
with  every  vegetable  or  animal  species,  had  but  one 
centre  of  creation. 

Around  the  central  tableland  of  Asia  are  found 
the  three  organic  and  fundamental  types  of  man,  that 
is  to  say,  the  white,  the  yellow,  and  the  black.  The 
black  type  has  been  somewhat  scattered,  although  it 
is  still  found  in  the  south  of  Japan,  in  the  Malay 
Peninsula,  in  the  Andaman  Isles,  and  in  the  Philip- 
pines, at  Formosa.  The  yellow  type  forms  a  large 
portion  of  the  actual  population  of  Asia,  and  it  is 
well  known  whence  came  those  white  hordes  that 
invaded  Europe  at  times  prehistoric  and  in  more  re- 
cent ages;  those  conquerors  belonged  to  the  Aryan 
or  Persian  race,  and  they  came  from  Central  Asia. 

Around  the  central  tableland  of  Asia,  we  find 
not  only  the  three  fundamental  types  of  the  human 
species,  but  the  three  types  of  human  speech.  Does 
not  this,  therefore,  afford  ground  for  presumption, 
if  not  actual  proof,  that  man  first  appeared  in  this 
very  region  which  Scripture  assigns  as  the  birthplace 
of  the  human  race? 


THE   HUMAN   RACE  1683 

It  is  from  this  central  tableland  of  Asia,  radiating 
so  to  say  around  this  point  of  origin,  that  man  has 
progressively  occupied  every  part  of  the  earth. 

Migration  commenced  at  a  very  early  period;  the 
facility  with  which  our  species  becomes  habituated 
to  every  climate  and  accommodates  itself  to  varia- 
tions of  temperature,  taken  in  connection  with  the 
nomadic  character  which  distinguished  primitive 
populations,  explains  to  us  the  displacement  of  the 
earlier  inhabitants  of  the  earth.  Soon,  means  of  navi- 
gation, although  rude,  were  added  to  the  power  of 
traveling  by  land,  and  man  passed  from  the  continent 
to  distant  islands,  and  thus  peopled  the  archipelagoes 
as  well  as  the  mainland.  By  means  of  transport, 
effected  in  canoes  formed  from  the  trunks  of  trees 
barely  hollowed  out,  the  archipelagoes  of  the  In- 
dian Ocean,  and  finally  Australia,  were  gradually 
peopled. 

The  American  continent  formed  no  exception  to 
this  law  of  the  invasion  of  the  globe  by  the  emigra- 
tion of  human  phalanxes.  It  is  a  matter  of  no  great 
difficulty  to  pass  from  Asia  to  America,  across  Beh- 
ring  Strait,  which  is  almost  always  covered  with 
ice,  thus  permitting  of  almost  a  dry  passage  from 
one  continent  to  the  other.  Thus  it  is  that  the  in- 
habitants of  Northern  Asia  have  found  their  way 
into  the  north  of  the  New  World. 

This  communication  of  one  terrestrial  hemisphere 
with  the  other  is  less  surprising  when  we  consider 
what  modern  historical  works  have  shown,  namely, 
that  already  about  the  Tenth  Century,  which  would 
be  nearly  400  years  before  Christopher  Columbus, 


1684  THE   STORY   OF  THE   UNIVERSE 

navigators  from  the  coast  of  Norway  had  penetrated 
to  the  other  hemisphere.  The  inhabitants  of  Mexico 
and  Chili  possess  most  authentic  historical  archives, 
which  prove  that  a  most  advanced  civilization  flour- 
ished there  at  an  early  period.  Gigantic  monuments 
which  still  remain  bear  witness  to  the  great  antiquity 
of  the  civilization  of  the  Incas  (Peru)  and  of  the 
Aztecs  (Mexico).  It  is  reasonable  to  suppose  that 
the  inhabitants  of  America,  who  thus  advanced  at 
a  rapid  pace  in  the  path  of  civilization,  descended 
from  the  hordes  of  Northern  Asia  which  reached  the 
New  World  by  traversing  the  ice  of  Behring  Strait. 
To  explain,  therefore,  the  presence  of  man  upon 
all  parts  of  the  continent,  and  in  the  islands,  it  is 
not  necessary  to  insist  upon  the  existence  of  several 
centres,  where  our  species  was  created.  If  popular 
traditions  went  to  show  that  all  the  regions  now 
inhabited  have  always  been  occupied  by  the  same 
people,  and  that  those  who  are  found  there  have  con- 
stantly lived  in  the  same  places,  there  might  be  rea- 
son to  admit  the  hypothesis  of  multiple  creations  of 
the  human  race;  but,  on  the  contrary,  traditions  for 
the  most  part  teach  us  that  each  country  has  been 
peopled  progressively  by  means  of  conquest  or  emi- 
gration. Tradition  shows  that  the  nomadic  state  of 
existence  has  universally  preceded  fixed  settlements. 
It  is,  therefore,  probable  that  the  first  men  were  con- 
stantly on  the  move.  A  flood  of  barbarians,  coming 
from  Central  Asia,  overflowed  the  Roman  Empire, 
and  the  Vandals  penetrated  even  into  Africa.  Mod- 
ern migrations  have  been  conducted  on  a  still  vaster 
scale,  for  at  the  present  day  we  find  America  almost 


THE   HUMAN   RACE  1685 

wholly  occupied  by  Europeans;  English,  Spanish, 
and  other  people  of  the  Latin  race  fill  the  vast  Amer- 
ican hemisphere,  and  the  primitive  populations  of 
'the  New  World  have  almost  entirely  disappeared, 
annihilated  by  the  iron  yoke  of  the  conqueror. 

The  continent  of  Asia  was  peopled  little  by  little 
by  branches  of  the  Aryan  race,  who  came  down  from 
the  plains  of  Central  Asia,  directing  their  course  to- 
ward India.  As  to  Africa:  that  continent  received 
its  contingent  of  population  through  the  Isthmus  of 
Suez,  the  valley  of  the  Nile,  and  the  coasts  of  Arabia, 
by  the  aid  of  navigation. 

There  is  therefore  nothing  to  show  that  humanity 
had  several  distinct  nuclei.  It  is  clear  that  man 
started  from  one  point  alone,  and  that  through  his 
power  of  adapting  himself  to  the  most  different  cli- 
mates, he  has,  little  by  little,  covered  the  whole  face 
of  the  inhabitable  earth. 

There  is  another  problem.  Did  the  white,  the  yel- 
low, and  the  black  man  exist  from  the  first  moment 
of  the  appearance  of  our  species  upon  the  globe,  or 
have  we  to  explain  the  formation  of  these  three 
fundamental  races  by  the  action  of  climate,  by  any 
special  form  of  nourishment,  the  result  of  local  re- 
sources; in  other  words,  by  the  action  of  the  soil? 

Innumerable  dissertations  have  been  written  with 
a  view  of  explaining  the  origin  of  these  three  races, 
and  of  connecting  them  with  the  climate  or  the  soil. 
But  it  must  be  admitted  that  the  problem  is  hardly 
capable  of  solution.  The  influence  which  a  warm 
climate  exercises  upon  the  color  of  the  skin  is  a  well- 
known  fact,  and  it  is  a  matter  of  common  observation 


1686  THE   STORY  OF  THE   UNIVERSE 

that  the  white  European,  if  transported  into  the  heart 
of  Africa,  or  carried  to  the  coast  of  Guinea,  transmits 
to  his  descendants  the  brown  color  which  the  skin  of 
the  Negro  possesses,  and  that  in  their  turn  the  off- 
spring of  Negroes,  who  have  been  brought  into  north- 
ern countries,  become  as  they  descend  paler  and  paler 
and  end  by  being  white.  But  the  color  of  the  skin  is 
not  the  only  characteristic  of  a  race;  the  Negro 
differs  from  the  white,  less  by  the  color  of  his  skin 
than  by  the  structure  of  the  face  and  cranium,  as  also 
by  the  proportion  of  his  members  to  one  another.  Is 
it  not,  moreover,  a  fact  that  the  hottest  countries  are 
inhabited  by  people  with  white  skins?  Such,  for  in- 
stance, are  the  Touaricks  of  the  African  Sahar?,  and 
the  Fellahs  of  Egypt.  On  the  other  hand,  men  with 
black  faces  are  found  in  countries  enjoying  a  mean 
temperature,  as,  for  instance,  the  inhabitants  of  Cali- 
fornia on  the  coast  of  the  Pacific  Ocean. 

We  have  now  another  question  to  consider.  Should 
these  white,  yellow,  or  black  men,  to  whom  we  must 
add  those  who  are  brown  and  red,  all  of  whom  differ 
one  from  another  in  the  color  of  their  skin,  in  height, 
in  their  physiognomy,  and  in  their  outward  appear- 
ance, be  grouped  into  different  species,  or  are  we  to 
regard  them  merely  as  varieties  of  species — that  is 
to  say,  races? 

Buffon,  in  his  chapter  upon  man,  a  work  which  we 
can  always  read  again  with  admiration  and  advan- 
tage, contents  himself  with  bringing  forward  the 
three  fundamental  types  of  the  human  species  which 
have  been  known  from  the  first  under  the  names  of 
the  white,  black,  and  yellow  race.  But  these  three 


American  Reptiles 

and  2,  Water  Snakes  (Masticophis\;  3,  Horned  Toad  (Phrynosoma) ;  4,  5,  n,  12,  13, 

American   Toads  ;    6,  Kangaroo   Lizard   (Crotaphytus)  ;    7,  Gila   Monster  (Helo- 

derma\ ;  8,  Chuckwalla ;  9,  Harlequin  Snake  (Elaps}  ;  10.  Rattlesnake  (Crotatus) 


THE   HUMAN   RACE  1687 

types  in  themselves  do  not  exemplify  every  human 
physiognomy.  The  ancient  inhabitants  of  America, 
commonly  known  as  the  Red-Skins,  are  entirely  over- 
looked in  this  classification,  and  the  distinction  be- 
tween the  Negro  and  the  white  man  can  not  always 
be  easily  pointed  out,  for  in  Africa  the  Abyssinians, 
the  Egyptians,  and  many  others,  in  America  the  Cali- 
fornians,  and  in  Asia  the  Hindoos,  Malays,  and  Java- 
nese are  neither  white  nor  black. 

Blumenbach,  the  most  profound  anthropologist  of 
the  last  century,  and  author  of  the  first  actual  treatise 
upon  the  natural  history  of  man,  distinguished  in  his 
Latin  work,  De  Homine,  five  races  of  men,  the  Cau- 
casian, Mongolian,  Ethiopian,  Malay,  and  Ameri- 
can. Another  anthropologist,  Prochaska,  adopted 
the  divisions  pointed  out  by  Blumenbach,  but  united 
under  the  name  of  the  'white  race,  Blumenbach's  Cau- 
casian and  Mongolian  groups,  and  added  the  Hindoo 
race. 

The  eloquent  naturalist  Lacepede,  in  his  Histoire 
naturelle  de  I'Homme,  added  to  the  races  admitted 
by  Blumenbach  the  hyperborean  race,  comprising 
the  inhabitants  of  the  northern  portion  of  the  globe 
in  either  continent. 

Cuvier  fell  back  upon  Button's  division,  admitting 
only  the  white,  black,  and  yellow  races,  from  which 
he  simply  derived  the  Malay  and  American  races. 

A  naturalist  of  renown,  Virey,  author  of  I'Histoire 
naturelle  du  Genre  humain,  I'Histoire  naturelle  de 
la  Femme,  and  of  many  other  clever  productions 
upon  natural  history  and  particularly  anthropology, 
save  much  attention  to  the  classification  of  the  hu- 
*  R 


1688  THE   STORY   OF  THE   UNIVERSE 

man  races.  But  he  was  not  favorable  to  the  unity  of 
our  species,  being  led  to  entertain  the  opinion  that 
the  human  species  was  twofold.  This  was  the  start- 
ing point  of  an  erroneous  deviation  in  the  ideas  of 
naturalists  who  wrote  after  Virey.  We  find  Bory  de 
Saint  Vincent  admitting  as  many  as  fifteen  species  of 
men,  and  another  naturalist,  Desmoulins,  doubtless 
influenced  by  a  feeling  of  emulation,  distinguished 
sixteen  human  species,  which,  moreover,  were  not  the 
same  as  those  admitted  by  Bory  de  Saint  Vincent. 

This  course  of  classification  might  have  been  fol- 
lowed to  a  much  greater  extent,  for  the  differences 
among  men  are  so  great  that  if  strict  rule  is  not  ad- 
hered to  it  is  impossible  to  fix  any  limit  to  species. 
Unless  therefore  the  principle  of  unity  has  been  fully 
conceded  at  starting,  the  investigation  may  result  in 
the  admission  of  a  truly  indefinite  quantity. 

This  is  the  principle  which  pervades  the  writings 
of  the  most  learned  of  all  the  anthropologists  of  our 
age,  Dr.  Pritchard,  author  of  a  Natural  History  of 
Man,  which  in  the  original  text  formed  ten  volumes, 
but  of  which  the  French  language  possesses  but  a 
very  incomplete  translation. 

Dr.  Pritchard  holds  that  all  people  of  the  earth  be- 
long to  the  same  species ;  he  is  a  partisan  of  the  unity 
of  the  human  species,  but  is  not  satisfied  with  any  of 
the  classifications  already  proposed,  and  which  were 
founded  upon  organic  characteristics.  He,  in  fact, 
entirely  alters  the  aspect  of  the  ordinary  classifica- 
tions which  are  to  be  met  with  in  natural  history.  He 
commences  by  pointing  out  three  families,  which,  he 
asserts,  were  in  history  the  first  human  occupants  of 


THE   HUMAN   RACE  1689 

the  earth :  namely,  the  Aryan,  Semitic,  and  Egyptian. 
Having  described  these  three  families,  Pritchard 
passes  to  the  people  who,  as  he  says,  radiated  in  va- 
rious directions  from  the  regions  inhabited  by  them, 
and  proceeded  to  occupy  the  entire  globe. 

This  mode  of  classification,  as  we  have  pointed  out, 
leaves  the  beaten  track  trodden  by  other  natural  his- 
torians. For  this  reason  it  has  not  found  favor  among 
modern  anthropologists,  and  this  disfavor  has  reacted 
upon  the  work  itself,  which,  notwithstanding,  is  the 
most  complete  and  exact  of  all  that  we  possess 
upon  man.  Although  it  has  been  adopted  by  no 
other  author,  Pritchard's  classification  of  the  hu- 
man race  appears  to  us  to  be  the  most  sound  in 
principle. 

The  classification  of  the  human  race  which  we 
propose  to  follow,  modifying  it  where  in  our  opinion 
it  may  appear  to  be  necessary,  is  due  to  a  Belgian 
naturalist,  M.  d'Omalius  d'Halloy.  It  acknowledges 
five  races  of  men:  the  white,  black,  yellow,  brown, 
and  red. 

When  we  examine  the  form  and  relative  size  of 
the  brain  in  ascending  the  series  of  mammiferous 
animals,  we  find  that  this  organ  increases  in  volume, 
and  progresses,  so  to  say,  toward  the  superior  charac- 
teristics which  it  is  to  display  in  the  human  species. 
The  brain  increases  in  importance  from  the  zoophyte 
to  the  ape.  But,  in  comparing  the  brain  of  the  ape 
with  that  of  man,  an  important  difference  becomes  at 
once  apparent.  The  brain  of  the  gorilla,  orang- 
outang, or  chimpanzee,  which  are  the  apes  that  bear 
the  greatest  resemblance  to  man,  and  which  for  that 


1690  THE   STORY  OF  THE   UNIVERSE 

reason  are  designated  anthropomorphous  apes,  is 
very  much  smaller  than  that  of  man. 

The  senses,  taken  individually,  are  not  more  devel- 
oped in  man  than  they  are  in  certain  animals;  but  in 
man  they  are  characterized  by  their  harmony,  their 
perfect  equilibrium,  and  their  admirable  appropria- 
tion to  a  common  end.  Man,  it  will  at  once  be  ad- 
mitted, is  not  so  keen  of  sight  as  the  eagle,  nor  so 
subtle  of  hearing  as  the  hare,  nor  does  he  possess  the 
wonderful  scent  of  the  dog.  His  skin  is  far  from 
being  as  fine  and  impressionable  as  that  which  covers 
the  wing  of  a  bat.  But,  while  among  animals,  one 
sense  always  predominates  to  the  disadvantage  of  the 
rest,  and  the  individual  is  thus  forced  to  adopt  a 
mode  of  existence  which  works  hand  in  hand  with 
the  development  of  this  sense,  with  man,  all  the  senses 
possess  almost  equal  delicacy,  and  the  harmony  of 
their  association  makes  up  for  what  may  be  wanting 
in  individual  power. 

Man  is  certainly  better  off,  as  regards  the  sense  of 
sight,  than  a  large  majority  of  animals.  Instead  of 
being  placed  upon  different  sides  of  his  head,  look- 
ing in  opposite  directions,  and  receiving  two  images 
which  can  not  possibly  be  alike,  his  eyes  are  directed 
forward,  and  regard  similar  objects,  by  which  means 
the  impression  is  doubled. 

The  sense  of  touch  in  man  reaches  a  degree  of  per- 
fection which  it  does  not  attain  in  animals.  How 
marvelous  is  the  sense  of  touch  when  exercised  by 
applying  the  extremities  of  the  fingers,  the  part  of 
the  body  the  best  suited  to  this  function,  and  how 
much  more  wonderful  is  the  organ  called  the  hand, 


THE   HUMAN   RACE  1691 

which  applies  itself  in  so  admirable  a  manner  to  the 
most  different  surfaces  whose  extent,  form,  or  quali- 
ties we  wish  to  ascertain! 

"Man  alone,"  says  Galen, "is  furnished  with  hands, 
as  he  alone  is  a  participator  in  wisdom.  The  hand  is 
a  most  marvelous  instrument,  and  one  most  admi- 
rably adapted  to  his  nature.  Remove  his  hand,  and 
man  can  no  longer  exist.  By  its  means  he  is  prepared 
for  defence  or  attack,  for  peace  or  war.  What  need 
has  he  of  horns  or  talons?  With  his  hand,  he  grasps 
the  sword  and  lance,  he  fashions  iron  and  steel. 
While  with  horns,  teeth,  and  talons  animals  can  only 
attack  or  defend  at  close  quarters,  man  is  able  to  pro- 
ject from  afar  the  instruments  with  which  he  is 
armed.  Shot  from  his  hand,  the  feathered  arrow 
reaches  at  a  great  distance  the  heart  of  an  enemy,  or 
stops  the  flight  of  a  passing  bird.  Although  man  is 
less  agile  than  the  horse  and  the  deer,  yet  he  mounts 
the  horse,  guides  him,  and  thus  successfully  hunts 
the  deer.  He  is  naked  and  feeble,  yet  his  hand  pro- 
cures him  a  covering  of  iron  and  steel.  His  body  is 
unprotected  against  the  inclemencies  of  climate,  yet 
his  hand  finds  him  a  convenient  abode,  and  furnishes 
him  with  clothing.  By  the  use  of  his  hand,  he  gains 
dominion  and  mastery  over  all  that  lives  upon  the 
earth,  in  the  air,  or  in  the  depths  of  the  sea. 

The  sense  of  hearing,  without  attaining  in  man  the 
perfection  which  it  reaches  in  certain  animals,  is 
nevertheless  of  great  delicacy,  and  becomes  an  in- 
finite resource  of  instruction  and  pure  enjoyment. 
Not  only  are  differences  of  intonation,  intensity,  and 
timbre  recognized  by  our  ear,  but  the  most  delicate 


1692  THE   STORY   OF  THE   UNIVERSE 

shades  of  rhythm  and  tone,  the  relations  of  simul- 
taneous and  successive  sounds  which  give  the  senti- 
ment of  melody  and  harmony,  are  appreciated,  and 
furnish  us  with  the  first  and  most  natural  of  the  arts 
— music. 

Let  us  now  pass  to  the  bony  portion  of  the  human 
body,  and  consider  first  of  all  the  head.  The  head  is 
shared  by  two  regions,  the  cranium  and  the  face. 
The  predominance  of  either  of  these  regions  over  the 
other  depends  upon  the  development  of  the  organs 
which  belong  to  each. 

The  cranium  contains  the  cerebral  mass,  that  is, 
the  seat  of  the  intellect;  the  face  is  occupied  by  the 
organs  appertaining  to  the  principal  senses.  In  ani- 
mals, the  face  greatly  exceeds  the  cranium  in  extent; 
the  reverse  is,  however,  the  case  with  man.  It  is  but 
rarely  that  with  him  the  face  assumes  importance  at 
the  expense  of  the  cranium — in  other  words,  that  the 
jaws  become  elongated,  and  give  to  the  human  face 
the  aspect  of  a  brute. 

There  is  in  the  human  face  an  anatomical  charac- 
teristic of  greater  importance  than  any  taken  from 
the  elongation  of  the  cranium;  that  is,  the  projec- 
tion forward,  or  the  uprightness  of  the  jaws.  The 
term  prognathism  (from  *pdt  forward,  and  pd0o?, 
jaw)  is  applied  to  this  jutting  forward  of  the  teeth 
and  jaws,  and  orthognathism  (from  6p0fc,  straight, 
n«0?>  jaw)  to  the  latter  arrangement. 

It  was  long  admitted  that  prognathism,  or  projec- 
tion of  the  jaws,  was  peculiar  to  the  Negro  race.  But 
this  opinion  has  been  forced  to  yield  to  the  discovery 
that  projecting  jaws  exist  among  people  in  no  way 


THE   HUMAN   RACE  1693 

connected  with  the  Negro.  In  the  midst  of  white 
populations  this  characteristic  is  frequently  met  with; 
it  is  occasionally  found  among  the  English,  and  is  by 
no  means  rare  at  Paris,  especially  among  women. 
Prognathism  would  appear  to  be  characteristic  of  a 
small  European  race  dwelling  to  the  south  of  the 
Baltic  Sea,  the  Esthonians,  and  which  itself  is  but 
the  residue  of  the  primitive  Mongolian  race.  It  is 
probably  the  mixture  of  Esthonian  blood  with  that 
of  the  inhabitants  of  Central  Europe,  which  causes 
the  appearance  in  our  large  cities  of  individuals 
whose  faces  are  prognathous. 

We  can  not  close  our  remarks  upon  the  face  with- 
out speaking  of  a  curious  relation  between  it  and  the 
cranium,  which  has  been  much  abused;  we  allude  to 
the  facial  angle.  By  facial  angle  is  meant  the  angle 
which  results  from  the  union  of  two  lines,  one  of 
which  touches  the  forehead,  the  other  of  which, 
drawn  from  the  orifice  of  the  ear,  meets  the  former 
line  at  the  extremity  of  the  front  teeth. 

The  Dutch  anatomist  Camper,  after  having  com- 
pared Greek  and  Roman  statues,  or  medals  of  either 
nationality,  assumed  that  the  cause  of  the  intellectual 
superiority  which  distinguished  Greek  from  Roman 
physiognomies  was  to  be  found  in  the  fact  that,  with 
the  Greeks,  the  facial  angle  is  larger  than  in  Roman 
heads.  Starting  with  this  observation,  Camper  pur- 
sued his  inquiries  until  it  occurred  to  him  to  advance 
the  theory  that  the  increase  of  the  facial  angle  may 
be  taken  in  the  human  race  as  a  sign  of  superior  intel- 
ligence. 

This  observation  was  correct,  insomuch  as  it  sepa- 


1694:  THE  STORY   OF  THE   UNIVERSE 

rated  men  from  apes,  and  carrion  birds  from  other 
birds.  But  its  application  to  different  varieties  of 
men,  as  a  measure  of  their  various  degrees  of  intel- 
ligence, was  a  pretension  doomed  to  be  sacrificed 
to  future  investigations.  Dr.  Jacquart,  assistant  natu- 
ralist in  the  Museum  of  Natural  History  at  Paris, 
calling  to  his  aid  an  instrument  he  invented,  by 
which  the  facial  angle  is  rapidly  measured,  has,  in 
our  day,  made  numerous  studies  of  the  facial  angle  of 
human  beings.  M.  Jacquart  found  that  this  angle 
can  not  be  taken  as  a  measure  of  intelligence,  for  he 
observed  it  to  be  a  right  angle  in  individuals  who, 
with  respect  to  intelligence,  were  in  no  way  superior 
to  others  whose  facial  angle  was  much  smaller. 

Erect  carriage  is  another  of  the  characteristics 
which  distinguish  the  human  species  from  all  other 
animals,  including  the  ape,  by  whom  this  position  is 
but  rarely  assumed,  and  then  accidentally  and  un- 
naturally. 

Everything  in  the  human  skeleton  is  calculated  to 
ensure  a  vertical  posture.  In  the  first  place,  the  head 
articulates  with  the  vertebral  column  at  a  point  so 
situated  that,  when  this  vertebral  column  is  erect, 
the  head,  by  means  of  its  own  weight,  remains  sup- 
ported in  equilibrium.  Besides  this,  the  shape  of  the 
head,  the  direction  of  the  face,  the  position  of  the 
eye,  and  the  form  of  the  nostrils  all  require  that  man 
should  walk  erect  on  two  feet. 

J.  J.  Rousseau  was,  therefore,  very  far  from  right 
when  he  contended  that  man  was  born  to  go  on  all 
fours. 


INDEX 


ABBOTT,  C.  C.,  1653 
Abdelrahman   Sufi,   119 
Acacia,   928,   950 
Acalephian   Hydroids,   459 
Acalephs,  459 
Acanth    family,    483 
Acephala,    459 
Achenar,  57,  98,   147 
Acorns,     1177 
Acrogens,  455,  483,  1000 
Adams,   Prof.,   431 
Adanson,   Michel,   994 
Adanson's  region,  940 
Adelsberg,  cave  of,  617-20 
./Epyornis,    1524 
Affinities,    1511-12 
Afghans,    1672. 
Africa,    deserts   of,   947 

fauna  of,    1548-52 

races   of,    1675 

vegetation  in,  909-15 
Agardh,    1266,    1267 
Agassiz,    1213,    1297 
Agriculture,   progress  of,   1091-99 
Air,   773,   778-84 
Airy,    Sir   George,    316,    806 
Albatross,   1 523 
Alcor,  67,  81,   126-27,   196-97 
Aldebaran,    57,    63,    96,    116,    124.    152, 

187,  3i6 

Alga,  red  snow,  514-15,  93<> 

Algae,   454,  455,   7io,   712,  887,  888 

Algol,   85,  ^28,    193,   208,   216-20 

Alhazan,   799 

Allen,  Grant,   1003,  1104 

Alligators,    1392,    1557,    157°,    1623 

Aloes,  953 

Alpha,    Capricorn!,    127 

Centauri,   41,   57.   63,   99,    125,    134, 
199,  204-5,  309 

Cruci,  57 

Eridani,   63 

Orionis,   63 
Alphabet,   Greek,    65 
Alphard,    188 
Alpine  plants,  930 
Alps,  glaciers  of  the,  510-13 
Al-Sufi,    60,    62,    63,    67,    68,    69,    163, 

188,  193,   2<>6,    219,   220 
Altair,  57,  76,  85 


Alternate  generations,  962,  964-65,  1329 

Amazon,  the,  623,  625 

America,   fauna  of,   1540,   1552-57 

races  of,    1672-73,    1677-78 

vegetation  in,  915-26 
American  Indians,   1677-78 
Ammonites,    672 
Amoeba,    977-78 
Anaxagoras,   376 
Anchovy,   1544 
Anderson,   Dr.,   68,   228-38 
Andromeda,  Constellation  of,  78,  84 
Andromedes,  281 
Anemones,   1361 

Angiosperms,  455,  890,  891-92,  958,  967 
A  gler-fish,   1569 
Angstrom,   818 
Animal,   kingdom,    1296-1300,    1535 

life,  types  of,  480 
Animals,   classification  of,    1301-4 

death-feigning    instinct    of,    1577-82 

distribution   of,    1520-35,    1561 

dwellings   of,    1601-2 

fishing  of,    1565-77 

fur-bearing,    1547,    1554 

hunting  by,    1565-77 

invertebrate,    1536 

mimicry  in,   1596,   1598-99 

and   plants,    976-78,   979-84,    H78 

vertebrate,   1535 
Annelids,    1603 
Annularia,   469 
Anogens,    455 
Antares,   57,   76,   188 
Ant-eater,    1571 
Antennae,    1439-45 
Antherozoids,    1039 
Anthers,   868,    1002 
Antinous,   78 
Ant-lions,    1417,   1568 
Ants,   1408,   1409-11 
Apes,    1626 
Aphaniptera,    1419 
Aphides,    1409-10,    1420 
Apogamy,    967 
Apospory,  967 
Apothecia,    1212 
Apple,    of   Carthage,    1095 

Persian,    1095 
Apteryx,    1524,    1528,    1561 
Aquarius,    78 
Arabians,  986,   1672,   1675 


1696 


INDEX 


Arabs,   the,    116-20 

Arago,   54 

Ararat,  Mount,  500 

Archegonia,   963 

Archimedes,    64 

Arcturus,   57,   63,   73,   86,   87,    122,    187, 

3i5 

Argelander,  58,  59,  62,  66,  68 
Aristolochia,   956 
Aristotle,  284 

of  Stagira,  986 
Armadillo,   1555 

Arnebia    echioides.      See    Prophet-Plant 
Arnold,   Dr.,    1069 
Aroideae,  952 
Arrow,  the,  77 
Articulata,  481,   1303 
Articulates,  459,  460 
Arum,   952 
Asia,   fauna  of,    1546-48 

races   of,    1672 

vegetation   in,   905-9 
"Ass,  wild,   1546 
Asteroids.     See  Planetoids 
Astrocopium,    119 
Astronomers,  the  first,  26 
Atacama,  desert  of,  665 
Atlantosaurus,   718 
Atlas,  64 

of  Southei-*  Stars,  61 
Atlases,   celestial,   65-66 
Atmosphere,    earth's,    773-84 
Atolls,    689-93,    699-707 
Aurora,  Borealis,  813-19 

spectrum    of,    346-47,    818 

and  sun,   817-18 
Ausonius,  88-89 
Australia,  flora  of,  886,  926-28 

races  of,    1673 

vegetation  in,   926-29 
Avebury,    Lord,    1105 


B 

BABOONS,   1529 
Bacon,  Roger,  799 
Bacteria,   648-54,    1131-35 
Badger,    1616,    1617 
Baer,   Von,    1294 
Baker,   Sir  S.,   1566 
Balance,  the,  78 
Balata,  the,  1153-54 
Balloon  ascensions,  776-77 
Baltimore  Oriole,    1631 
Bamboo,  1115-22 
Banana,   942-43,   952 
Banisteria,  953,  956 
Banks,   Sir  Joseph,   1387 
Banyan   tree,    1169-70 
Baobab,  941,  950 
Barley,    944 
Barometer,    785 

Barnard,     Prof.,     155,     159,     263,     391, 
419,    420 


Bate,    Spence,    1375,    1376 

Bates,  W.   H.,    1594,   1595,   rS99 

Bathybius  haeckelii,  1306 

Batrachia,    1379 

Bats,    1547,    1550,    1555-56 

Bauhinas,   953,    956 

Baxendell,   344,   348 

Bayer,  John,    105 

Beagle,   the,    1665 

Bear,  the  Great,  80-81,   122 

the  Little,   77,  82 
Bears,    1543,    1546,    1553 
Beaumont,   Elie  de,  572 
Beaver,   1542,  1554 
Beavers,    1639-46 
Bee,    1408,    1552 

eyes    of,    1448 

sting   of,    1436 
Beechnuts,    1 1 78 

Bee  Hive  in  Cancer,   66,    130,    167,    176 
Bees,   1426-17,   1478-79,   1496-9* 

wings  of,    1429 
Beetles,    1411-13,    1433-34,    1435,    1440, 

1578 

Behrmann,  61,  62,  66 
•     Belemnites,    672 
Bellatrix,   124 
Bellerophon,  470 
Belopolsky,  315 
Belts,  homoiozoic,   1521 
Bennett,  Mr.,   755,  758-59 
Berenice's  Hair,  78,   153 
Berosus,    501 
Beta,  Centauri,   57,  63 

Crucis,  57 

Betelgeuse,    57,    96,    124,    128,    i»7.    188 
Bibra,   755 
Biela,  300 

Bignonia,  953,  956,   1165 
Birds,  1578,  1582-93,  1622,  1624 

of  Africa,    i55°-5i 

of  America,    1556 

of  Asia,   1547 

of  Australia,    1559-60 

of  Europe,    1544 

of  New  Zealand,  1561,  1608-9 

of  paradise,    1547 

death-feigning  of,    1577-82 

emotions  of,  1593 

extinct,    1524-25,    1561 

flight   of,    1583 

gigantic,   1524-25 

migration  of,   1523,   1537,  1590-92 

mimicry  in,    1596-97 

moulting  of,    1586 

nests  of,    1587-90,    1629-34 

pairing  of,    1586 

primeval,    489-90 

sounds   of,    1584-85 

tastes  of,   1592 
Birthwort,    1071-72 
Bison,  1531 
Bitter  Lakes,   587 
Bivalves,  459 


INDEX 


1697 


Blumenbach,    1669,    1687 

Blume's  region,  940 

Boa  Constrictor,   1548,   1557 

Bode,  397 

Bonald,  Cardinal  de,   1679 

Bond,  W.  C.,  418 

Bonpland's  region,   941 

Bootes,   75,   86,   87 

Botanical   regions,   939-41,    1143 

Botany,  859,   985-86 

Bower-bird,    1592,    1627-28 

Brachiopods,    470,   482,   671 

Brahmaputra,    the,    623,    624 

Brauer,   1422 

Brazil-nut,   1 1 79 

Bread  fruit,  942,  945 

Brongniart,   471,    472,   995,   996 

Brown,    Robert,   999 

region  of,  941 
Buckwheat,    945 
Buff,    Prof.,    735 
Buffalo,   1553 

musk,  1533 

Buffon,   1528,    1532,   1583,   1686 
Bull,  the,  78,  94,  96,  123-24 
Bullhead,   the,    1609 
Bunt,   1200 
Burian,  the,   1144-45 
Burmeister,  1401 
Burnham,   201 

Bush,  Australian, .  1139,  1140 
Bustard,   1542 
Butterflies,  1461-62,  1594-95 

wings  of,    1431-33 
Byron,  762 


CACAO,    920 

Cachalot,   1561,   1563 

Cactus,  917,   957.    1180-89 

Caddis- worms,  1404 

Caff  res,    1675-76 

Calamites,    468,    473'74,    873 

Calms,  Belt  of,  786 

Calyx,  867-68,   1002 

Camel,   1545,   1549 

Camelopard,  1531 

Camelopardus,  78 

Camoens,    762 

Campbell,  Prof.,  392-93 

Camper,    1693 

Canary  Isles,  932-34 

Cancer,  78 

Candolle,  A.  P.  de,  985,  995,  997,  "86, 

1466 

Candolle's  region,  940 
Canes  Venatici,  78 
Cards  Major,    125 
Cannibalism,    1657 
Canopus,   57,  63 
Caoutchouc,  1163,  1166,  1169 
Capella,    57,   63,   76,   85,    116,    122,    187, 

3iS 
Capron,  819 


Carpels,  869,   10 
Carpenter,  Dr., 


Carapace,   1394 
Carboniferous,    Limestone,   464 

plants,    468,    473,    873 
Carboniferous  Period,  457,  464-79 

fishes  of  the,  484-86 
Carnivora,    1518-19,    1536,    1546,    1552, 
1565 

1003 

,   730,  731,   736,   74i,   7S4 
Cashew-nut,   1 1 79 
Caspian  Sea,  the,  581-82,  583-85 
Cassava-meal,   1164 
Cassini,  226,  285,  360,  377,  378,  418 
Cassiopeia,  78,  84 
Cassiopeia's  Chair,   123 
Cassowary,    1524,    1526,    1560 
Castor,  98,   132,   123,   198,  207-8 
Casuarina,  951 

Caterpillars,   1421,   1459-60,   1602 
Catheturus,  1622 
Catingas,    the,    922 
Caucasian    race,    the,    1670-73 
Cavalier,   the,   81 
Cave,   of  Adelsberg,   617-20 

Azure,  of  Capri,   709 

Mammoth,  615 
Caves,  612-18 
Ceiba,  950 
Celacanths,  484 
Cells,   1299 
Celsius,  816 
Cenotes,  609 
Centaur,   the,   98,   99 
Cephalaspis,  483,  484,  671 
Cephalopoda,  459,  481 
Cephalopods,    1576 
Cepheus,  78 
Cerealia,  943-45 
Cestracions,   484 
Cetacea,   1516,    1536,   1561-63 
Cetaceans,   676 
Cetus,   98-9 
Chair,  the,   77 
Chalcididae,  1449-58 
Chaldean  shepherds,  the,  26 
Chalk  Age,  483 
Chambered  shells,  459 
Chamisso,    691 
Chamisso's  region,  940 
Chaparrals,   1140 
Chariot,   the,   75,   77,  81 

of  David,  So 

the  Little,  82 
Cheiroptera,    1536 
Cheirostemon,   950 
Chelinous,   1577 
Chelonian  reptiles,  1395-1401 
Chestnut,  931,    1174-77 
Chimborazo,  776 

Chimpanzees,    1529,    1530,    1550,    1626 
China,  agriculture  in,  1092,  1096 
Chinchilla,   1555 
Chi  Persei,   180 
Chlorophyll,    897 


INDEX 


Chrysalis,    1460,    1464 

Cicada,    1420 

Cicadz,   1436 

Cicero,    359 

Cilia,    1010,    1039,    1291-92 

Cinchona,  919 

Circassians,   1671 

Cirripeds,    1500 

Cladothrix  odorifera,  652,  653 

Clairaut,   292 

Clams,  459 

Clark,    Alvan,    203,    256 

Clerke,    Agnes   M.,    191 

Climate,  change  of,  502-5,   1127,   1650 

Climbing-perch,    1352-53 

Clouds,   819-28 

cirro-cumulus,    823 

cirro-macula,  823-24,  825 

cirrus,    824-28 

colors   of,    825-26 

cumulo-stratus,  825 

cumulus,  820-21,  822-23 

names,    popular,    784 

nimbus,  825 

"scud,"    825 

stratus,    820-21,    822,    823-24 
Club-mosses,    887,    961-63,    1229-30 
Coal,   465-67,   474-79,   872,   886-87 
Coal-measures,   464 

flora  of  the,  471-79,  1230 
Coal-sack,  the,   134,   135 
Coasts,  length  of  the,  708 
Cobra,  1552 

Coccosteus,  470,  483.  484 
Cochineal,    1185,   1420-21 
Cockchafer,    1441,    1464 
Cocoanut,  942 
Cocoon,    1 460 
Ccelum,  78 
Coleoptera,    1411-13 
Coleridge,  762 
Columbus,   1263,   1267 
Comet,   Biela's,  300 

Encke's,  299,   304 

Halley's,  38 

of  1472,  288 

of  1680,  290,  296 

of  1744,  41 

of  1811,  39-40,  41 

of  1843,  303 

of  1848,  298 
Comets,   37-42,    132,    282-307 

great,  298-99 

Common,  Dr.,  165-66,  244,  253,  260,  264 
Condor,  1523,  1538,  1556 
Confucius,   501 
Conifers,  472,  873,  884,  931 
Constellations,    the,    31,    64,    75,    77-79, 
101-3 

the   Chinese,    76 

Northern,   80-88 

Schiller's,    104-5 

Southern,    97-100,    147 

Zodiacal,  88-97 


Cook,    Capt.,    1673 
Copernicus,    353 
Coral-animals,   459 
Coral   formations,    689-707 

reefs,    689-707 
Corallines,   1258-59,   1331 
Corals,   471,   481,   707 
Corolla,   868,    1002 
Corona   Borealis,   86,    123 
Coronae,  826,  827 
Corvus,  the   Crow,  98 
Cotopaxi,    517,    545,    550 
Cotyledon,    1001 
Cowbird,    1605 

Cow-tree,   920-21,    1167,    1170 
Coxwell,   776-77 
Crab,    the.      See    Cancer 
Crabbe,    762,    1210 

Crabs,    1374-77,    1604,    1606,    1621,    1622 
Crater,  the  Cup,  98 
Cretaceous   period,    874 
Crinoids,    460,   471,   481,    1314-18 
Crocodiles,    1391-92,   1551,   1556 
Crown,  the,   78 
Crustacea,    459,    460,    1374-78 
Crustaceans,    471 
Cryptogams,    454,    873,    887-90,    957-58, 

960-61,    965,    1000,    1229-30 
Ctenoids,   483 
Cuckoo,    1605 

Cucumber,   squirting,    1008-9 
Cuttle-fishes,   457,   459,   482 
Cuvier,    463,    1296,    1297,    1669,    1687 
Cycads,   455,   873,   874-76 
Cycloids,   483 
Cyclones,    792,   844 
Cygnus,    85,    123 
Cynosura,    77 
Cypress,    630,    1137 
Cypress-swamps,    630-31,    1137-38 
Cysat,    154 

D 

DAHNA,  the,  659 

Dante,    74,    99-100 

Darwin,  Charles,  710-11,  751,  978,  1003, 
1064,  1073,  1297,  1610,  1664, 
1665 

Darwin,    Erasmus,    1205 

Darwin,    Frank,    1015 

Darwin,  G.  H.,  416 

Dead  Soa,    586-87 

De   Candolle.     See   Candolle 

De    Dominis,    80 1 

Delile's  region,  940 

Deluge,   the,   501-2 

the  Asiatic,  493,  495,  500-2 
the  European,  493,   495-99 

Deneb,    123,    127 

Denebola,   69,    1 1 6 

Descartes,    801,    802,    804,    806 

Deserts,    654-65,    947 

Devonian   Period,   461-63 

Dew,    812-13 


INDEX 


1690 


Dew-point,    812 

Dicotyledons,    863 

Dictyogens,    1001 

Differentiation,    1293-94 

Diluvium,    494-95 

Dinornis,    1524 

Dinornus   giganteus,    490  * 

Dinotheriutn,   491-93 

Diptera,    1418-19 

Dismal   Swamp,   the  Great,   631,   1137 

Dodo,    1524,    1526 

Dog,  the  Great,  997,   125 

the  Little,   98 
Dogs,    1574,    1611 
Doldrums,    786,    849 
Dolinas,   619-20 
Dolphin,    1561 

the,    78 

Dove,    786,    787 
Draconidae,   the,    1088-90 
Dragon,    the,    78 
Dragon-fly,    1416-17,   1427,   1462-63 

eyes   of,    1445-48 
Dragon-tree  of  Orotava,  933,  954 
Du  Chaillu,    1627 
Dunes,    643-44,    656 
Durer,   Albert,    65 
D'Urville's  region,   941 
Dyer,   Thiselton,    1122 


EAGLE,   the,   85 
Eagles,    1538,    1556 
Earth,    the,    326 

astronomical  year  of  the,  369-73 

atmosphere  of  the,    773-84 

crust  of  the,   439-40,   45O,   456,   57' 
676-77,   871-72 

change  of  climate  of,  502-5,  1127 

dimensions  of  the,  366 

distance  from  the  sun,  368 

evolution   of  the,   666-70 

formation   of   the,   433-39 

moon's  influence  on  the,  720 

motions   of   the,    366-67 

as  a  planet,   364-76 

revolution  of  the,  368 

rotation   of   the,    368-69 

seasons   of   the,    372 -74 

smell   of   the,    648-54 

vegetation,   946-56 
Earthquakes,    559-66 
Earwigs,   1403 
Echinodermata,    1313-14 
Echinoderms,   459,    460,    1319 
Edentata,    1519,    '536,    J555 
Eel,    1385 
Egypt,  agriculture  in,   1091-92 

dogs    of,    1611 

Elephants,    1533,    1537-38,    '549 
Elger,    819 
Elk,    1553 
Elton  Lake,  586 


Elves,    1204 

Emeu,    1524,    1526 

Emu,    1556,    1560 

Enaliosaurs,    487 

Encke,   298,   299,   418 

Endlicher,   877,   995 

Endogens,  455,  874,    1001 

Endomosis,    1294-95 

Eocene,    490-91,    1647,    1648 

Eocene  animals,  1535 

Epiphytes,    862 

Equinoxes,  precession  of  the,  375 

Equisetaceae,   468-69,   472,    mo 

Eta,   Argus,    57,    155,   212-13 

Cassiopeiae,    198,    207 

Hercules,    3 1 5 
Etna,  525,   545,  548,   557 
Ejcalyptus,   927-28,   955,   U39 
Eudoxus,    64 
Euler,   41 

Euphorbia,    1163,    1165 
Euphrates,  the,  624 
Europe,  fauna  of,  1541-45 

vv  jetation  of,  898-904 
Evaporation,    793-96 
Evergreens,    1125-30 
Existence,   struggle   for,    1464-82 
Exogen?    455,    1002 
Exosmosis,    1295 


FAIRY-FUES,   1449-58 
Fairy-rings,    1204-8 
Fauna,    marine,    1522 
Ferns,   455,   467-68,   470,   472,   473,   873,. 
887,    889-90,    929,   954-55,   957-58, 
967,    1230 
Ferrel,   792 

Fertilization,      1005-6,      1064-68,      1104, 
1107,    1 1 12-13,    I495-98 

cross,  897-98 

insect,  894-95,  897,  957 

wind,    898,   957,    1027-37 
Fig,    1169-70 
Fig-trees,  955 
Findley,  A.  G.,  736 
Finns,   1672-74 
Fire-balls.     See  Meteors 
Fire-flies,    1557 
Fire-wells,    519 

Fishes,    460-61,    463,    470,    474,    482-86, 
J337-56,  1544 

amphibious,    1351-53 

fins  of,    1338,    1340-42 

gills  of,    1338,    1344 

globe,    1355 

intelligence    of,    1345-46 

mud,    1353-55 

nests  of,   1350,    1629 

pipe,    1346,    1350 

protective  color  of,   1601 

scales  of,   1338,   1339 

shooting,    1351 


1700 


INDEX 


Fishes,   senses   of,    1 344*45 

teeth  of,    1342-43 

telescope,    1356 

the  (constellation),  78 

trigger,   1 355-5$ 
Flamingo,    1636 
Flamsteed,  65,  427 
Flies,    1444 

fairy,   1449-58 
Flogel,   818 
Flood.     See  Deluge 
Flora  of  the   Alps,    513-1 5 

of    Australia    and    Mesozoic    com- 
pared, 886 

of   carboniferous    period,    468,    473, 
873 

of  New  Zealand  and  Mesozoic  com- 
pared, 886 

dawn   of  modern,   874 

fossil,    959-61 

Mesozoic,  871-77 

Permian,  472 

seashore,    1233-37 
Flower,  the,  867 
Flowers,  clock  of,  1043 

colors  of,  959,  1061-68,  1104 

dioecious,  870 

fertilization  of,  871,    1027-37,    1064- 
68 

and  insects,   894-95,   897,   957,   968, 
1028-30,   1064-68,   1069-77,   1 112 

mimicry  in,   1070 

monoecious,   870 

odors  of,    1107-9 

queer,    1068-77 

sleep  of,   1005 
Fly,   house,   1525-27 
Fog,  823 
Fogs,   red,   831 
Fohn,  the,  831 
Fomalhaut,    57 
Foraminifera,  471,  1307 
Forbes,  E.,  1521 
Forest  formations,   1 135-46 
Forsch,    1172 
Forskal's  region,  940 
Forster,  819 
Forster's  region,  940 
Fossil,   definition  of,  443 
Fox,   1542,   1567,   1576,   1579-81,  1616-17 

the  Little,  78 
Frog,  1379-82 

Fruits,  898,   1002-16,   1104,   1647 
Fulton,  T.  W.,   1 1 06 
Fumaroles,  539 
Fungi,  454,  887,  889,   1189-1204,   1204-8 

colors  of,    1193,   1197 

distribution  of,   1201-4 

food    of,     1191-92,    1206 

growth  of,   1106-7,   II93-94 
odors  of,    1106-7,    1196 

organs  of,    1198-99 

shapes  of,   1196-97 
spores  of,  1199 


Fungus    (giant  puffball),   1194 
(Jews'  Ears),  1197 
(liver),  1196 
(stinkhorn),    1194 
(Tremella  mesenterica),    1197 

G 

GADID.E,  483 

Gaertner,    1003 

Galaxy.      See   Milky   Way 

Galileo,   135,  154,  354-55,  377 

Galle,  Dr.,  806 

Gall-flies,    1406,    1407 

Gamelin,    1266 

Ganges,  the,  624,  625 

Ganoids,   483,   485-86 

Gasteropoda,   459 

Gauchos,   1579,  1581 

Gecko,    1392-93 

Gemini,  96,    122,    124 

Genera  Plantarum,  995-96 

Generations,   alternate,   964-65 

alternation  of,  964-65 
Geological  periods,  872-74,  1646 

duration  of,  453-54 

table  of,  452 

Geological  vegetable  kingdom,   454-56 
Geology,  439 
Georgians,    1671 
Georgium  Sidus,  428 
Geysers,  520-22 
Giant  Orion,  the,   78,  96 
Gibbons,  1529,  1547 
Ginko-tree,  876,  884 
Giraffe,   the    (Camelopardus),   78 

the,  1532,  1549 
Glacial  period,  496 
Glacier,  of  the  Aar,  512-13 

of  the  Aletsch,   506,   513 

of  the  Grindelwald,   512 
Glaciers,    502-16 

of  the  Andes,  505 

of  the  Caucasus,  505,  s"o6 

of  Himalayas,   506 

of  Norway  and  Sweden,  506 

of  the  Pyrenees,  505-6 

of  the  Rocky  Mountains,  505 

of  Switzerland,  506 

of  the  Tyrol,   506 
Glaisher,   776-77,  807 
Globes,  celestial,  65 
Glucose,   969 
Gobi,   Desert  of,   661-62 
Goethe,  895,  998-90,   1002,   1294 
Goldschmidt,    400 
Gorilla,    1550 
Gould,  Dr.,   171,  188,  191 
Gourami,   1629 
Grallae,  489 

Graminaceae,  923-24,  954 
Grass,  1010,  1082-83,  UM,   1144-46 
Grasses,  938,  943-45,  954,   1031-32 
Grasshoppers,  1435 


INDEX 


1701 


Grass,"  "Land  of,  637 

Gray,   Asa,    1483 

Grew,   Nehemiah,   986,   988,   989 

Greyhounds,   the,    78 

Grubb,  Sir  Howard,  251,  261 

Guinea-fowl,    1523,    1551 

Gulberg,    792 

Gulf  Stream,  727-49,  1265-66 

Gulf-weed,   >264 

Gymnogens,  483,  1001 

Gymnosperms,    455,    873,    890-91,    958 

Gyracanthus,  485 

H 

HAECKEL,  ERNST,  982,  1299,  1305 

Hail,  809-11 

Hailstones,    no 

Hailstorm,  noted,  811 

Haliday,    1450,    1451,    I45-2,    1453,    '45 

1457 

Hall,   Asaph,    395 
Halley,  38,  63,  291,  816 
Halos,   826 
Hamster,    1619 
Hanno,    761 
Harmattan,   831 
Harriot,    320 
Harvey,    Dr.,    1250-51 
Hawkesbury,  the,  624 
Heath,   950,    1142 
Heavens,  the,  25 

the  Arabian,    106-20 
Heis,  60,  61,  62,  66 
Helmholtz,   350 
Hen  and  Chickens,  77 
Hencke,  399,  400 
Henshaw,   988 
Henslow,   1113 
Herbert,  W.,  1466 
Herculaneum,  516-17 
Hercules,   78,   375 
Hermaphrodites,  1500 
Hermit  Crab,   1330,  1606 
Heron,  Sir  R.,   1492 
Herschel,  Caroline,  164 
Herschel,   Sir  John,   136,   137,   u6, 

56,    157,    158,    1 60,    162-63, 

171,   189,   191,   192,  207,  212, 

321,  384 
Herschel,    Sir  William,   59-60,    121, 

137,   162,   167,  168,  172,   175, 

201,    202,    203,    204,    205,    207, 

319,  321,  426 

Hesiod,  76,  91 
Heteromorpha,   14°  5 
Heteroptera,    1419-21 
H«vel,   377 
Hevelius,  226,  353 
Hexactinellidse,   1307-13 
Hicrapolis,  Baths  of,  598 
Hildebrand,  1003,  1014 
Hind,    128,    190,   400 
Hindoos,   1672 


iS5" 
170, 
241, 

13°, 
200, 
243, 


Hipparchus,   60,  221 
Hipparion,    1298 
Hippopotamus,    1532,    1549-50 
Hoar-frost,    812 
Hofmeister,    1053 
Holden,   Prof.,   161,   163 
Holoptychius,  470,  474 
Holothuria,    1365 
Holtenia   carpenteri,    1307-9 
Home,  Sir  Everard,  1387,  1388,  1393 
Homer,  72,  75,   76,  297,  359,  761 
Homomorpha,    1405 
Homomorphism,   1099-1114 
Honey-suckers,  1559-60 
Hooke,   988 

Hooker,   Dr.,  926,    1214,    1483 
Horse,    1532 
Horsetails,  887 
Hottentots,    1675 
Houreau,  61,  62,  66,  67,   126 
Howard,  Luke,  821 
Hudson,  W.  H.,  1605 
Huggins,   Dr.,    161,    163,    183 
Humboldt,  A.  von,  33,  54,  58,  148,  224- 
26,   750,   759-60,  776,  906,  920-21, 
1143,  1161,  1170,  1180,  1214,  1265 
Humboldt's  region,  941 
Humming-birds,   1557,   1628-29 
Hurricanes,  844 

Huxley,   753,  979,   1306,    1500,   1583 
Huygens,   154 

Hyades,   66,    75,    124,    127,    152-53 
Hya-hya-tree,  1167 
Hydra,    1328-29 

(constellation),    98 
Hydrozoa,   1325-27 
Hyenas,   1546,   1548-49 
Hymenium,  1199,  '200 
Hymenoptera,  1406,  1449-58,  1634 


ICE,  507 

age,   1128 

Ichneumons,  1406,   1408 
Ichthyosauri,   673-74 
Iliad,  quotation  from  the,  75 
Incidence,  angle  of,  800 
India  rubber,   1163,  1166 
Indian,   the   (constellation),   78 

figs,    1180,   1181,    1184-85 
Infusoria,   1290 

Insects,  1401-64,  1545,  '552,  i557,  '576, 
1577-78,  1620,  1623-24,  1634,  1635 

eggs  of,   1401 

eyes   of,    1445-48 

and  flowers,  894-95,  «97,  957,  9&o, 
1028-30,  1064-68,  1069-77,  "12, 
1495 

fossil,    1421-22 

imago  of,  1401,  1461 

larva  of,    1401,   1 458-59 

mimicry  in,    1595,1600 

orders  of,    1402-5 


1702 


INDEX 


Insects,     parasitic,     1403,     1407,     1408, 
1411,    1419,    1449-58 

pupa  of,  1401,  1460 

scales  of,  1431-34 

"sembling"   of,    i443'44 

senses  of,   1439-48 

sounds  of,  1434-36 

stings  of,   1436-39 

transformations,       1401-2,       1403-6, 
1458-64 

type  of,    1423 

types   of,    1423,    1424-25 

wings  of,   1428-34 
Iirawadi,   the,   624 
Isobars,    788,    789-90 
Isothermals,  786 


JACKAL,   1546 

Jack-on-the-Middle-Horse,  126 
Jacob's  staff,  77 
Jacquart,   Dr.,    1694 
Jacquin's  region,  941 
Jaguar,    1553 
Jaxarres,  the,   627,  640 
Jeffreys,   Gwyn,    1309,    1312 
Jelly-fish,  962,   1325-29 
Job,  75,  119 
Jorullo,   561 
Josephus,    76 
Judd,  Prof.,  528 
Jungfrau,   the,   512,   513 
Jungles,    1140 

Jupiter,    32,    131,    312,    313,    317,    326, 
331,  340,  403-15 

atmosphere  of,  411 

brightness  of,   404-5 

density  of,  403-4 

orbit  of,    4°4 

red  spot  on,  408-9 

rotation  of,  403 

satellites  of,   411-15 

spectrum  of,  416 

spots  on,  407-8 

volume  of,  403 
Jussieu,   B.   de,   993-94 
Jussieu,  L.  de,  995 


K 

KAEMTZ,  787 
Kakapo,    1608 
Kampfer's  region,  940 
Kangaroo,   965,    1558 
Kangaroo-rat,   1558 
Kazwini,   106,   115,   118,  119 
Keeler,   155,  255,  406,  407,  422 
Kepler,   226,   368,   396,   799-800 
Kerner,   1003 
Kilauea,   544,  545,   557 
Kirby  and  Spence,    1401 
Kirchhoff,    337-38,    34O,   342 
Kluge,  544 


Knight,  Andrew,  1058 
Koch,   Dr.   R.,   1133 
Krakatoa,  eruption  of,  527-36 
Krates,  64 
Krause,  1003 


LACEPEDE,    1687 

Lago   Maggiore,    573 

Lagoons.      See   Atolls 

Lake,    Big   Soda,    581 
Drummond,   631 
dwellers,    1093-94 
of  Geneva,    574,   575,   576 
Great  Salt,  of  Utah,  579-81,  587 
Superior,   573,   576 
Tchad,    628 

Lakes,    573-88,    620-21,    628 

Lalande,   431 

Land,   distribution  of,  676-79 

"Land  of  Grass,"  the,  638 

Landes,    Les,   644-45 

Laplace,   310,  433,  434,   787 

Laplanders,    1672 

Lassell,   430,   432 

Latreille,    1403,    1414,    1415 

Lava,   540-41,   552,   554-59 

Laval,   Pyrard  de,   690 

Leaf,   863-64,    1222 

Leavies,    863,    972-75,    1016-27,    1042-44, 

1221 

falling,    1126 

foliage,   865-66 
Le  Monnier,  427 
Lemurs,    1529 
Leo,   sickle  in,    125,    127 
Leonids,   278-81 

Lepidodendra,  468,  960-61,   1230 
Lep  idoptera,   1421 
Lepidosirens,  1345,  1353-55 
Le  Roi,  813 
Lespes,   M.,   1410,    1411 
Leuckart,    1419 
Leverrier,   303,   348,   431 
Ley,  Clement,  821,  823 
Lianes,    924-25,    928,    953 
Libra,   78 
Lichens,  454,  887,  889,  930,  946,  1208-19 

Alpine,    1214-15 

distribution  of,  1213-14 

organs  of,   1212 

reindeer,   931 

rock   hair,    1216-17 

Tripe   de   Roche,    1219 

written,    1211 

Umbelicarus,    Higinis,    514 

Usnea  florida,   1217-18 
Life,  omnipresence  of,    1285-95 
Light,   44,   51-2,  802 
Ligule,   864 
Liliaceous  plants,  955 
Lilies,    1084-87 
Lindley,  995,    1060 


INDEX 


1703 


Lindley,  classification  of,   1000-2 

Linnaean  region,  939 

Linnasus,    990,    1043,    1216,    1266,    1296, 

1403,    1466 
Lion,  1546,  1548 

th     (constellation),   78 
Lister,  Sir  Joseph,   1134 
Liverworts,   455,   887 
Lizards,    1390-91,    1544,   1551 
Llama,    1554 

Llanos,   the,   646,   918,   1143 
Lobster,    1377-78 
Lockyer,   342,   345,   346 
Loess,  499 

Lowell,   Percival,,   388-89,   390 
Lowlands,   634-48 

Lubbock,   Sir  J.,   1457,   1656,   1657,  1661 
Lucifer,    359 

Lycopodiaceae,   455,    470,   472 
Lycopods,   468,   961-63,    1229-30 
Lyell,   Sir  Charles,  627,   1466 
Lynx,   the,   78 
Lyre,   the,    85 

M 

MACAQUES,  1 529 

Macassar-poison  tree,  1 1 72 

Mackerel   skies,   823-24 

Macrospores,  962,  965-66,  1365-67 

Magellan,   1098 

Magellanic  clouds,   147-48,  167 

Magnol,   992-94 

Magnolias,  906,   916 

Magpies,    1630 

Maguey-plants,    1140 

Magyars,   1672,   1674 

Maize,   944 

Malays,    1676-77 

Malpighi,    988 

Malvaceae,  950 

Maraillaria,    1182,    1187 

Mammals,  herbivorous,  886 

Mammalia,    1513-20,    1535,    1552 

protective  colors,   1598-1600 
Mammoth   Cave,    615 
Man,   1518,   1679 

birthplace    of,    1654,    1682 

brain    of,    1689 

cranium  of,    1692 

definition  of,  1679 

facial  angle  of,    1692-94 

first  appearance  of,  1647-56 

hand   of,    1691 

migration   of,    1680-86 

primitive,    1656-67 

senses  of,    1690-92 
Manchineel,   the,    1164-65 
Mandioc,   1164 
Manioc,  945 
Mankind,   distribution   of,    1667-68 

ethnological  division  of,   1669-71 

races    of,    1667-78,     1682,    1685-89 
Marco  Polo,  986 


!     Mare's  tails.     See  Equisetacea 
.     Mariotte,  804 
Marmosets,   1555 
Marmots,  1615 
Mars,   131,  312,  313,  331,  340,  385-96 

atmosphere  of,  393-94 

canals  on,  388-91 

climate  of,  394 

diameter  of,  385 

"Eye  of,"   388 

Hour  Glass  Sea,  392 

lakes  of,  388 

moons  of,   395 

rotation  of,  386 

seasons  of,  386 

spectrum  of,  392 
Marshes,    628-34 
Marsupialia,    1534-35,   1536 
Marsupials,    1539,   1558 
Martins,    Ch.,    814-16 
Martius,    899-902,    921,    1165 
Martius's  region,  941 
Maskelyne,  426 
Mastodon,  the,  492-93.   «533   . 
Ma-tuan-lin,   annals   of    (Chinese),   221, 

222,     226 

Mauna  Loa,    557 
Maury,  301,   730,  840,  842,   1266 
Maxwell,  Clerk,  419 
Mayflies,    1415-16 
Medusa,  Head  of,  85 
Medusae,  the,  962.     See  Jelly-fish 
Megalichthys,  470,  474 
Megalonyx,    1533 
Megatherium,   1 533 
Melocactus,    1182,    1187 
•Mercury,     130-31,    311,    326,    33 1,    34$, 
353-58 

atmosphere  of,  354 

diameter  of,  354 

elongations   of,   354 

orbit  of,  353-54 

phases  of,   354'55 

revolution  of,  353-54 

and  Venus,  355 
Mer  de  Glace,  512-13 
Mesozoic,  flora,  871-77 

Ocean,  672-74 
Messier,  35,   130,  426 

the  "Comet   Ferret,"  426 
Messophyll,  864 
Metamorphosis  of  insects,  1461 
Metazoa,  1299 
Meteorology,   science  of,   786,   788,   791. 

991 

Meteors,  266-82 
Mexican  hand-tree,  950 
Mexico,  agriculture  in,  1094 
Meyer,   Hans,    1598 
Miasma,  634 
Michaux's  region,  940 
Microspores,   961-62 
Mildew,    1200 
Milk-tree,    1167,    1170 


1701 


INDEX 


Milky  Way,  the,  27-28,   50,  60,   70,  76, 

85,    128,    129,    133-46 
Miller,   Prof.,   806 
Millet,  945 
Milne-Edwards,    757 
Mimicry,    1593-1601 

in   fungi,    1197 

in  plants,    1070,    1099-1114 
Mimosa  form,  950 
Miocene,   1647,   1649 

animals  of,  1532,   IS3S 

Tertiary,  491-93 
Mira  Ceti,  99,  128,  194,  210 
Mirage,    638-39,    661,    947 
Mirfak,   134 

Mississippi,  the,  624,  626 
Mistral,  831 
Mitchell    Miss,  286 
Mitchell,  Sir  Thomas,  927 
Mizar,   8 1,    126,   127,    196-97 
Moa,    1561 
Moffette,    518 
Moggridge,   1612 
Mohl,    1052,    1060 
Mohn,   792 

Mollusca,  470,  481,   1302,   1320,   1602 
Mollusks,  459,  460 
Monera,  1305 
Mongolians,    1673-74 
Monkeys,    1529-31,    '555 

fossil,   1529 
Monocotyledons,   862 
Monsoons,  836-41,  849-50 
Montanari,   68 
Mont  Blanc,  512 
Moon,    the,    376-85 

brightness  of  the,  384-85 

diameter  of  the,   35 

geography  of  the,  378-85 

influence  upon  the  earth,  720 

Maria  of  the,   379-8 1 

mountains  of  the,  382-84 
Moons.     See  Satellites 
Moss,   Iceland,  931,    1218 

Irish,  1257 

Spanish,   1229 
Mosses,   455,   887,   889,   930,    1220-30 

club,   961-63,    1229-30 

distribution  of,  1223-26 

leaves  of,  1221 

organs  of,  1221-22 

scale,  1226-29 

urn,   1226 

Moth,  Death's  Head,   1572 
Moths,  wings  of,  1431-33 
Mould,   1 20 1 
Mountains,  566-72 
Mouse,  dwarf,   1633 
Mu  Cephei,   188 
Mud-lava,    516 
Mud-lumps,  610-11 
Mud-volcanoes,  519-20,  522-25 
Muller,    H.,    1102 
Muller,   1003 


?h°e 


Munro,  Gen.,  1117,   1119,  1122 
Mushrooms,    1200,    1207-8 

French,  1207 

St.   Georges,    1 207-8 

spawn  of,    1198 
Muskrats,    1638 
Mussels,  459,  460 
Mycelium,    1198 

N 

NAPOLEON,  787 

Natural  selection,  1122,  1130,  1482-1512 

Nebula,  definition  of,  180-82 

great,  in  Andromeda,   129 

in   Andromeda    (31    Messier),    163- 
66,   176 

in  Argo,  155-57 

Doradus,"   157 
Dumb-bell,  158 

The  Keyhole,    155-57 

"57  Messier,"   159 

"99  Messier,"   161,   167 

great,  of  Orion,  129,  154-55,   176-87 

"the  trifid"   (20  Messier),   157-58 
Nebulae,   the,    28-29 

"annular,"  159-60 

elliptical,  163 

planetary,   161-63 

"Queen  of  the,"  129 

spiral,    166-67 

Nebular   hypothesis,   310,   433 
Nefouds,   the,    659-60 
Negro,  the,   1674-76 
Neptune,  41,  312,  313,  317,  332,  43<>-,3? 

diameter  of,  431 

distance  from  the  sun,  431 

revolution  of,  431 

satellite    of,    432 
Nemertes  worm,   1371-73 
Nettle-plants,    1 1 68-7 1 
Nettles  and  serpents,   1170-72 
Neuroptera,    1413-17 
Neve,   region  of  the,   515 
Newton,   242,   289,   803,  804,  805 
New  Zealand,  birds  of,  1524-25 

fauna  of,  1561 

savages,   1673,  1677 

vegetation  in,  929-00 
Nichol,  Prof.,   143,   146 
Nile,  the,  623,  624,  625 
Northern  Crown,  the,  86,   123 
North   Pole,   88 
Nubecula,   major,    139,    147-48 

minor,  139,  147-48 
Nuts,    1174-80 

o 

OAK,  931 

Oak-egger   moth,    1441  -43 
Occultations,    131-32 
Ocean,  floor  of  the,  676-89 
luminosity  of  the,  759-63 


INDEX 


1705 


Ocean,    Mesozoic,    672-74 
Palaeozoic,   670-71 
phosphorescence  of  the,    1320-24 
primitive,  666 

of  the  Tertiary  Period,   674-75 
Oil-wells,   519 
Old  Red  Sandstone,  481,  482    483,  484, 

486 

Omega   in   Centaur,    180 
Onychoteuthis,    673 
Oolite,  animals,   1535 

reptiles,  487-88 
Opalina,    1290,    1294 
Ophiocephalidx,    1352-53 
Opossums,     1534,     1541,     1554,     1579-80, 

1648 

Opuntias,   1184-85,   1188 
Orang-outangs,    1529,    1530,    1547,    1550, 

1626 

Orchids,  951,  956,   1101-2,  1113,   1154-55 
Organ,    1292 
Orinoco,  the,  623 
Orion,  97,    124,    177 
belt   of,    124 
great   nebula   of,    29,    97,    125,    129, 

154-55,    176-87 
sword  of,    124 
Orycteropus,   1571 
Ornithorynchus,    1558-59 
Orthoceratites,   672 
Orthoptera,    1413 
Ostrich,   1523-24,   1526,  1550 
Oven-bird,    1637-38 
Ovid,  64 
Owen,    1297 
Owl,   horned,    1607 
Oysters,   459 


PACHYDERMATA,  1536,  1549 

extinct,    491-93 
Paget,  Sir  James,  978 
Palaeontology,   1529,   1532 

founder  of,  463 
Palaeotheres,  490-91 
Palaeozoic,  fauna,  872 

flora,  872,  874 

ocean,  670-71 
Paley,    1293 
Paliser,   400 
Palm,   date,   911 

groves,    1140 

oil,   912 

Palmetto  fields,    1140 
Palms,    938,   949-50 
Pampas,  647-48,  663-64,  1141,  1145 
Pampero,   850-52 
Papuans,   1676-77 
Paradise-fish,    1603 
Partridge,    1581 
Passifloras,  953,  956 
Pea-crab,    1604 
Peach,  the,   1095 


Peacock,  1547 
Peat-bogs,    631-34 
Peat-mosses,   631-34 
Peccary,    1553 
Peduncle,   the,  867 
Pegasus,   78 

square  of,  84,  123 
Permian  period,  465,  872,  873 
Peron,    755-57 
Perseus,   78,  84 

new  star  in,   228-38 
Persians,    1672 
Peru,  agriculture  in,  1094 
Petals,  868,    1002,    1032 
Petermann,  Dr.,  738 
Phaenogams,   454,  455,   456 
Phanerogams,   887,   890-92,   957-58,   966, 

1001 

Pheasants,    1547 
Pholades,  757 
Phosphorescence   of   fungi,    1192-93 

of  ocean,  750-63,   1320-24 
Phyllode,   864 
Phyllotaxis,    1017 
Piazzi,  396-98 
Pickering,  VV.  H.,  155 
Pictet,  813 
Pileus,    1199 

Pines,   455,   873,   876,   885-86,   931 
Pine-woods,   1136 
Piscis  Australis,  98 
Pistil,  869,   1003 
Pitcher-plants,  1074-75 
Placoids,  482 
Planetoids,   the,   396-403 
Planets,  the,  30,  31,  55,  310-16 
Planisphere,   Graeco- Egyptian,  64 
Plants,  and  animals,  976-77,  979-84,  1478 

cilia  of,  1010 

classification  of,  984-1002 

climbing,    1045-61 

color  development  in,   896 

cultivation  of,   1091-99 

dew,  1083 

distribution   of,   936-45 

fertilization   of,    892-98,    1005-16 

flowering  and  flowerless,  963-65 

food,  941-45,  1026 

forms   of,   948-55 

fossil,  958 

growth  of,    1 122 

insect- fertilized,   894-95 

insectivorous,  1068-77,  1103 

"irritability"  of,  977-78,  1040, 

leguminous,    1080 

milk-sap,    1161-74 

mimicry  of,   1099-1114,   1598 

movement  in,    1045-61    • 

movements     of,      1005-16,      1037-44, 
1122-25 

oldest,  455,    1230 

organs  of,  968 

radiation  of,  1042-43 

sleep  of,  978,  1038,  1042 


1706 


INDEX 


Plants,   social,  956 

and    soil,    934-36,    969-72 
wind-fertilized,    894 
Planula,   1328 
Plastron,   1394 
Platypus,    1558-59 
Plateaus,  submarine,  683 
Pleiades,    the,    75,    77,    $5,    94,    123-24, 

151-52,   167 
Pleistocene,   1647,    1649 

animals,    1533 
Plesiosaurus,  674 
Pleuracanthus,  485 
Pleuronectidse,    483 
Pliny,  60,  221,   757,  761,  986 
Pliocene,    1522,    1647,    1649 

animals,    1532,   1533 
Plow,  the,    122 
Plowright,  Dr.,   noi,   1106 
Plumularia,    1333-35 
Plutarch,  376 
Poik,   the,   617-20 
Poison-trees,    1165 
Pole  Star,  68,  82-83,  87,  122,  197 
Pollen,   868,    1002,    1028-29 
Pollux,   57,  98,    122,   315 
Polynesia,  fauna  of,  1560-61 
races  of,   1666,   1676-77 
Polypes,    1328-31 
bell,   1335-36 
coral,  459 
garland,  1331-35 
Polyzoa,  471 
Pomegranate,    1095 
Porcupine,  the,   747 
Porpoise,  1561 
Potato,  942,  945 

sweet,  929 
Pothos,  952,  955 
Pouchet,    George,    1681 
Poultry,   domestic,    1 547 
Poussiniere,  the,   75 

Prairies,   the,   645,    1142 

Prawn,   1377 

Prehistoric  period,    1647 

Priestley,    1205 

Pritchard,    Dr.,    1688,    1689 

Probabilities,    science   of,   786 

Proctor,   66 

Procyon,   57,   63,   76,  98 

Proesepe,   66,   130,    153 

Prophet-plant,   1 061-68 

Protein,   980 

Prothallus,  962 

Protogens,   456 

Protoplasm,  980,  1039 

Protozoa,    1299,    1304-5 

Psammodus.  470 

Pterichthys,   483,   484,   671 

Pterodactyles,  487 

Ptolemy,  64,  65,  66,   67,  68 

Puma,   1553 

Pursch's  region,    940 

Pygopterus,  474 


Pyrosoma,  the,  755 
Python,   1548,   1551,  1567 

Q 

QUADRUMANA,  1518,  1529-31,  1536,  1548, 
1550 

Quagga,   1541,  1550 

Quaking-bogs,   631 

Quaternary   period,   494,   495,   1679-80 


RADIATA,   1303-4 

Radiates,   459,   460 

Radiation,   812 

Rafflesia,   Arnoldi,   956,    1068-71,   1173 

Raffles,  Sir  Stamford,  1068 

Rain,    792-98 

colored,    797 

cyclonic,    849 

non-isobaric,    849 

tropical,   849 
Rainbow,  the,  799-807 

white,  806-7 
Raindrops,    792-98 
Rain-gauge,    792-93 
Rake,   the,   77 

Ramsay,    Sir  Andrew  C.,   573 
Rattlesnake,    1385 
Raven,    1578-79 
Ray,   John,   989-90 
Razor-fish,    1358 
Red  River,  the,  624 
Red  Sandstones,  872,  873 
Red  Sandstone  of  Connecticut,  489-90 
Reefs,    barrier,    689,   693-96,   699-707 

coral,  689-707 

fringing,   689,   696-98 
Refraction,   law  of,  800 
Regulus,   57,   123,    125 
Reindeer,    1538 
Reinwardt's   region,   940 
Reproduction,   966 

Reptiles,   486-88,    1379-1401,   1548,    1551, 
1557,   1610 

extinct,  673-74 

herbivorous,    886 

mimicry  in,    1597 
Rhea,   1524,   1527,    1528 
Rhinoceros,   1 549 
Rhizocarp,  455 
Rhizocarpeae,  455 
Rhizodus,   485 
Rhizogens,    1001 
Rhizopods,    1 305 
Rhodius  anarus,    1606 
Rhone,  the,   626 
Rice,    944,    1114 

Rigel,  57,  63,  96,   108,   124,   187,   188 
River-basins,    636-37 
River-drift  man,   1649-56 
Rivers,  621-27,  629 

Roberts,  Dr.   Isaac^  158-59,   159-60,   164- 
65,    166-67,  245,  264 


INDEX 


1707 


Rock,  beds  of,  450-52 

definition   of,   440 
Rocks,  440-50 

absorption  of  moisture  by,  590-92 

erratic,    496-97 
Rodentia,   1519,   1536,   1550 
Rooks,    1572 
Roots,   861-63 
Ross,    Sir   James,    688 
Rosse,    Lord,    154,    161,    166,    276 
Rousseau,   J.   J.,    1694 
Roxburgh's  region,  940 
Ruiz  and  Pavon's  region,  941 
Ruminantia,    1531-36 
Ruskin,   1019 
Rust,    1200 
Rye,    944 


SAGITTA,   77 

Sahara,    the,    654-59 

Sahel,   the,  655-56 

Saint-Hilaire,    Auguste   de,   921,   922-23, 

925 

Saint-Hilaire's  region,  941 
Saint    Lawrence,    the,    624 
Saint  Pierre,  B.  de,  1182 
Saint  Vincent,   Bory  de,   1688 
Salamander,    1383 
Salisburia,  876 
Salmon,    1545 
Salmonidae,   483 
Samoiedes,    1672,    1674 
San  Francisco,  the,   625 
Sargasso  Sea,   the,   1263-67 
Satellites,    30,    411-15,    420-26,    429-30, 
432 

Jupiter's,    411-1 5 
Saturn,   312,   313,   317,   326,   331,  415-26 

diameter  of,  415 

and   Jupiter,    416,    417 

moons  of,  420-26 

orbit  of,  415 

rings   of,    417-20 

rotation   of,   415 

seasons   of,    415 

spectrum   of,   416 
Saurians,   1390-94 
Savages,    1657-66,   1673 
Savannas,   646 
Savary,  201 
Savigny,    1422 
Scales,   of  fishes,    1338-40 

of  insects,   1431-34 
Schiaparelli,  356-57,  388,  394 
Schickard,    119 
Schiller,  Jules,   105 
Schmidt,   818 
Schopf,    712-13 
Schwabe,    Herr,    324,    326-27 
Scoresby,  807 
Scott,   Walter,    763,    1022 
Sculptor's   Workshop,   the,   78 


Sea,  color  of  the,   709-13 

depths  of  the,   680-89 

distribution  of  the,  677-79 

fauna  of  deep,  1304  - 

flora  of  the,   1233-37 

magnitude  of  the,   707 

phosphorescence  of  the,  750-63 

shore,   the,    763-72,    1232-33 

temperature  of  the  deep,   739-40 

water,  organic  life  in,  1261 

wonders  of  the,   1357-74 
Sea-dust,   831-32 

-horses,   1346-50 

-pens,  754-55 

-slugs,    1369-70 

-urchins,  459,  1361-62 
Sea  of  Aral,   582 
Seals,  582 
Seaweed,    Irish  moss,    1257 

Sargassum,    1263-68 
Seaweeds,  454,  1230,   1237-62 

colors  of,    1262 

dulse,   1250 

food    of,    1261-62 

fucus,    1239 

laver,    1251 

organs  of,   1262 

parasitic,  1246 

spores  of,    1262 

Ulvae,   1240 

wracks,  1239 
Seed,    ejection    of,    1007-16,    1199-1200, 

1212 

Seeds,   1002-16,   1104-5 
Seiches,   574 
Selenography,    376 
Selvas,  647 
Seneca,  284 

Sensitive-plants,    1039,    1040 
Sepals,    867-68 
Septentriones,  82 
Sequoia,  876-84 
Serpent,   the,   78 

Serpents,   488,    1383-90,    ISS',    '557 
Sertularia,    133° 
Sexual    selection,    1491 
Shagreen,    1339 
Shakespeare,    1204 
Shark,    1538,    1544 
Shield  of  Sobieski,  78,  96 
Shooting-fishes,  1351 
Shooting-stars,   132 
Sidereal  universe,  30 
Sidereus   Nuncius,   377 
Sigillaria,   464,   470,   476,    1230 
Sigillariae,  470 
Silkworm,    1545 
Silurian  beach,   456-63 
Silurian   period,   461-63 

fauna  of  the,  481 
Simoon,   830 
Sirius,    54,    56,    57,    63,    66,    75.    96,    97 

125,   187,   193,  203,  308 
Sirocco,    830-31 


1708 


INDEX 


Smith,   Sir  J.   E.,  99« 
Smith,    Worthington,    1598 
Smut,    1 200 

Snell,  Willebrod,  800,  80 1 
Snow,   807-9 

red,  of  Alps,  514-15 

crystals,   807-8 

flakes,    808-9 
Social  plants,   1226 
Soffioni,  518 
Soil,   absorption   of  moisture  by,   588-90 

and  plants,   934-36,   969-72 
Solar,   corona,   342 

spectrum,  337,  346 

system,   30,   71-72 
Solfatara,  518,  539 
Somma,    542-43 
Sorcerer's  Spring,  the,  592 
Southern  Cross,   the,  78,  99,   125 
Space,   32,  33-42 
Species,  984 
Spectroscope,   333 
Spencer,  Herbert,   1466 
Spermaceti,    1563 
Sphagnum,   632,    633 
Sphere,   invention  of  the,  64 
Spica,   57,  63,  66,  209 
Spiders,    1578,    1600-1,    1612-14,    1634 
Spines,   867 
Spinneret,   1460 
Sponges,   1305,   1307-13 
Spores,  fungi,   1199 

lichens,   1212 

01  seaweed,   1262 
Sprengel,    1003 
Springs,  592-604 

mineral,  602-3 

salt,   599-601 

thermal,  594-99 
Sprung,    792 
Spurge,   family  of,   1163 

phosphorescent,    1 1 66 
Squalls,  845-47 
Squirrels,    1624-25 
Stamens,  868,  1002 
Staphilinus  Caesareus,   1568 
Star,   "the  Blaze,"  277 

the  brightest,  54,  63 

the  "Demon,"  216-20 

the  dog,  97 

"garnet"    (Mu   Cephei),    188 

"The  Lost,"    115 

nearest  to  earth,  41,  99 
"Nova"  [P  (34)   Cygni],  226 

Nova   Persei,   228-38 

"The    Pilgrim,"    223 
the  Pole,  68,  82-83,  87,  122,  197 
"The  Test,"  81,    115 
Tycho   Brahe's,   223,   224-26 
"the    wonderful."      See    Mira    Ceti 
Star-clusters,   29,   49,    50,   66,    160,    167. 

75,   192 
Star-fishes,  450 

-groups,    151-53 


Star-streams,   133-40 

Stars,   the,   25,   43,   51-60,    307-9 

Arabic,  names  of,   106-20 

atlases  of,  65-66 

binary,    200-10 

blue,    192 

brightness   of   the,    56,    68-69 

catalogue  of,  58,  60,  61,  62 

colored,  187-95 

distances  of  th«,  36,  46,  51-52 

double,  67,   125,   192,    195-200 

doub'-e  (naked  eye),  126-27 

fixed,  30-31,   55,  60 

fortunate,   116 

green,    191-92 

inhabited,  307-10 

lucid,   60 

magnitudes   of,   56-58,   62-63 

maps  of,  65-66 

movements  of,   33 

multiple,    195 

nebulous,    1 63 

number  of,  58-60,  60-61,   120-21 

of  solar  type,  315 

quadruple,    195 

red,    188-91,    193-95 

scintillation  of,   53-54 

shadows  of,  66 

shooting,    132 

spectra  of,  308 

temporary,    128,   220-27 

triple,    195,   203-4 

variable,  127-28,  194,  209-20 

wandering,  31,  55 

white,    193,    195 

yellow,    193 
Steinbrinck,    1003 
Stem,  862 
Steppes,    the,     582,     637-43,    661,    947, 

1143-46 

Sticklebacks,    1350,    1629 
Stigma,   870 
Stigmaria,    464,    476 
Stigmariae,    470 
Stipa  pennata,    1015-16,    1144 
Stipules,  864 
Stomata,    1022 
Storms,    rotary,    844-45 

thunder,  847-48 
Strabo,  64,   598 
Stratum,    440 

Streams,   subterranean,   604-10 
Stromboli,   544-45 
Strommung,    1543 
Struve,    59,    201,    430 
Sun,  the,   316-52 

density  of  the,   316 

diameter  of  the,  36 

gravity   of  the,   317 

mass  of  the,  316 

spots,  318-25,   544,  817 

a  star  of  the  Milky  Way,  28 
a  variable  star,  327 
volume  of  the,  316 


1709 


Sunbirds,   1551 

Sun-dew,   the,   1073-74 

Suns,  numberless,  28,  29,  48-49 

Survival  of  the  fittest,   1466,   1484 

Swallow,    1636 

Swamps,  628-34,    1137-38 

Swan,  the,   78,   123 

Swartz's  region,  941 

Swinburne,    1073 

Swine,   1532 

Synapta   Digitata,    1362-63 


TADPOLE,    1379-82 
Tailor-bird,    1633 
Tangles,    1231,    1248-49 
Tapir,    1553,   1554 
Taurus,    123-24 
Taxonomy,  1298 
Tebbad,   830 
Tef,  945 

Telegraph-plant,   1041,   1044 
Telescope,   the,   49,   333'37 

the  Cassegrain,  243-44 

equatorial,    249-53,    258-61 

eye-pieces,   245-47 

Lick,   256 

reflecting,   241 

refracting,  238 

Lord    Rosse's,   253 

Yerkes',  255 
Telescopes,  great,  253-61 

photographic,  262-66 
Tendrils,    867,    1049-60,    1124-25 
Termites,  1414,   1552 
Tertiary  period,  493,  674-75 

animals,    1532 
Thallogens,  454,  482,  1000 
Thallophytes,  958 
Thallus,    1000 
Theodoras,   64 
Thistles,   1145-46,   1181,   1183 
Three  Kings,  the,   77,  97 
Thunberg's  region,  941 
Thunderstorms,   847-48 
Tidal-action,    713-27 
Tides,   713-27 

Tierra  del   Fuegians,   1664-66,   1678 
Tigris,    the,    624 
Titmouse,   1630 
Titus,   law   of,   397 
Toad,    1382-83 
Toadstool,   1200 
Tocusso,   945 
Torch-thistles,    1181,   1183 
Tornado,   844,   852-58 
Tortoise,  1394-98,  1399-1401 
Tortoise-shell,    1397 
Toucans,    1556 
Tournefort,  986-90 
Toxotes  jaculator,    1576 
Trade-winds,    659,    663,    834-36.    841-42 


Tree-frog,    1383 

-palms,  885 

-worship,    1078 
Trees,   1030-31 

Australian,  1139 

California  big,  876-84 

deciduous,   1 129 

nut,    1174-80 

poison,   1165,   1167-68,   1172,   1174 
Tremendal,    631 
Triangle,    the,    78 
Trias,  872 

Trichoptera,    1417-18 
Trilobites,  457,  460,  471,  481,  671 
Tritons,    1383 
Truffle,     1201 
Trumpet-tree,  1165 
Tschudi,  Jacbon,  877 
Tundras,   582,   637 
Turkeys,    1523,   1556 
Turks,    1672,    1674 
Turtle,    1398-1401 
Twins,   the,   78,  98 
Tycho  Brahe,  69,  303,  353 
Tycho  Brahe's  star,  223-26 
Typhoons,   845 

u 

ULLOA,  DON  ANTONIO  DE,  807 
Ulug  Bekh,  67,  115,   118 
Unguilata,    1536 
Univalves,   459 
Universe,  the,  25-33,  5i 
Upas-tree,   1172,   1 1  £4 
Uranography,  Chinese,  76 
Uranometria,  Argentina,  66,  70 

(Bayer's),  64 
Uranoscopus,  1569 
Uranus,  131,  312,  3»3,  S'7,  332,  426-30 

diameter  of,   428 

revolution  of,   428 

satellites  of,   429-30 
Urus,  1543 
Utah,   Great  Salt  Lake  of,   579-81,  587 

desert  of,   662 


VALUSNERIA  SPIRALIS,  893,    1006 

Vanilla,  955,    "52 

Van  Tieghem,  967 

Vaucher,   1015 

Vaucluse,  the  Sorges  of,  604-5 

Vedas,   the,   501 

Vega,    51-52,    57,    «3,    7^,    85,    87,    123, 

187,  193 

Vegetable-ivory,   1179 
Vegetation,   in   Africa,   909-15 

in  America,  915-26 

in  Asia,  905-9 

in  Australia,  926-29 

in  Canary  Isles,  932-34 

of  the  earth,  946-56 


1710 


Vegetation,  in  Europe,  898-904 

in  New  Zealand,  939-30 

zones  of,  930-45 
Venus,   131,   312,   317,   326,   331,   358-64 

atmosphere  of,  361 

and  Mercury,  355 

climate  of,   361 

geography  of,  362 

orbit  of,  360 

phases  of,  359-60 

revolution   of,   360 

year  of,  361 

Venus's  Fly-trap,  1076-77 
Vertebrata,   1301,   1337 
Vertebrates,  460-61 
Vesper,  359 
Vesuvius,     525,     543,     545,    546,    548-49, 

SSL    556,    557 
Via  Lactea,   27 
Virey,   1687 
Vitellio,    799 
Vitruvius,   598 
Vizcacha,    1617-19 
Volcanic,   action,    516-27,    541-42 

tuff,    445 
Volcano,   545 

definition  of,   537-38 
Voice,  iocs,   525-27,   536-59,   562,   570 

eruptions   of,    517 

gaseous   emanations,    518-19,    538-39 

mud,   519-20,   522-25 
Volga,   the,   627,   637 
Vulcan,   353 
\  ulpecula,  78 
Vulture,   1551 

W 

WAHLENBERG'S  REGION,  930,  939,  1143 

Walker,  Francis,  1452 

Wallace,  A.  R.,  1003,  uoo-i,  1127,  1115, 
1116,  1117,  1297,  1591,  1594, 
1595,  1596!  1597 

Wallich's  region,   940 

Wasps,  1408,  1409,  1634 

Water-bearer,  the,  78 

Waterspouts,  845 

Weak,   J.   P.   Hansel,    noi,    1598 

Weather,  784 

prognostics,   784-85,   827-28 
charts  of  the,   786,   788,  827 

Weaver-birds,    1631-33 

Wells,  Dr.  William  Charles,  813 


Westwood,   1462,  1403,   1404,   140  = 
Whale,  1561 

the,  98-99 

Whately,   1658,   1661 
Wheat,   944,   945 
Whirlwind,   849,   852-53 
\Vhitney,    Prof.,   878 
Whorl,    866 
Wildcat,   1542 
Williams,   Stanley,   409-10 
Wilson,  Alexander,   813 
Winds,  828-45 

trade,   834-36,   841-42 
Wiwgs  of  insects,   1428-34 
Winlock,   Prof.,  818 
Withering,    998 
Wolf,  Max,   155,  263 
Wollaston,   54 
Wolves,    1574-75 
Woods,    Brazilian,    1146-61 
Worms,   459-60,    1619 
Wren,    Sir   Christopher,    792-93 


XYLOCOPA,   1620 


YELLOWSTONE  NATIONAL  PARK,  52 
Young,  Thomas,  806-7 
Yucca,  954,   1164 


ZEBRA,  1541,  1550 
Zodiac,  the,  88-95 

Arabic,   92 

Chinese,   93-94 

of  Denderah,  90 

of  the  Elephanta  Pagoda,  91 

of  Esne,  91 

Hindoo,   93 
Zodiacal  light,   132,    149-51,   351, 

spectrum  of,  346 
Zone,   of   calms,   833-34 

the  coralline,   1230 

the  laminarian,    1230,   1231 

the  littoral,   1230 
Zones,   bathymetrical,    1521-22 
Zoophytes,   470,    481 
Zoospores,    1039 
Zosteracese,   482 


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